Learning Objectives

Refer to Pages 224–253.

9.1: Explain the difference between a working group and a team.

Refer to Page 225.                                            

A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. A work group interacts primarily to share information with other members of the group (e.g., members of a work group attend a monthly staff meeting and share what they are working on). They are not responsible for a collective work product, or their individual contributions can be added up to create something.

9.2: Illustrate the relationship between team purpose and performance by using a team charter.

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Effective teams have a sense of shared purpose, and it is one of the components of the definition of a team. Specific team goals predict specific team performance (e.g., setting challenging goals for quantity results in higher team output). Also, feedback on performance affects the allocation of resources when individuals strive to accomplish both individual and team goals. The team leader should clarify the team purpose and set up ground rules through a team charter. The team leader should openly address conflict and maintain a focus on the team purpose and ground rules established in the charter.

9.3: Compare and contrast two models of team development.

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A classic model of team development is the five-stage model, which includes five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During the forming stage, team members may experience stress due to the uncertainty of not knowing the other team members and understanding their role on the team. As the team interacts on project work, conflicts emerge regarding the goals and contributions of team members and the group enters the storming stage. In the norming stage, the members of the team form a cohesive unit and close relationships among team members develop. In the performing stage, the team should be performing by producing collective work products. The group shifts from relationship development and norm articulation to the work itself and goal attainment. The adjourning stage is when the team finalizes its work and disbands. In many student project teams—and also at work—teams are temporary and have a clear deadline. A second model of team development addresses the potential performance losses that may occur during the initial storming or procrastination phases. This model is known as the team performance curve. The team performance curve recognizes that team performance over the course of the life of the team is not always linear and performance does not always increase over time. The team performance curve and shows there may be a performance decrease as the team goes through the storming phase. If the team gets past the storming and establishes productive norms, they reach a point where they can be considered a potential team. A small number of teams become high-performance teams, which have all the characteristics of real teams plus team members are deeply committed to the growth and development of the other team members.

9.4: Describe the three main aspects of team effectiveness.

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Team effectiveness has a number of dimensions. The input-process-output model defines the different aspects of team effectiveness. First, input refers to the individual characteristics of team members (e.g., skills and abilities) and the resources they have at their disposal. Inputs may also refer to knowledge and personality. Process is the second aspect of team effectiveness and refers to how the team interacts. Third, the most obvious measure of team effectiveness is team output—the collective work product generated from the team (team performance). Output has three components: (1) performance as rated by those outside the team, (2) how well team member individual needs are met, and (3) the willingness of team members to stay on the team.

9.5: Demonstrate how to assess the cohesion of your team.

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[Example for a student team] The extent to which your team is cohesive can be assessed by asking the following questions: How well do members of your group get along with each other? How well do members of your group stick together (i.e., remain close to each other)? Would you socialize with the members of your group outside of class? How well do members of your group help each other on the project? Would you want to remain a member of this group for future projects or in future courses?

9.6: Explain how team norms influence team behaviors.

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In addition to cohesion, team norms also have a powerful effect on team member attitudes and behaviors. Norms are defined as informal and interpersonal rules that team members are expected to follow. These standards may be explicit and formally stated by the leader or members of the team. But norms may also be implicit. They are not written down, and communication of the norms to team members depends on the ability of the leader (or team members) to effectively convey the expected behaviors. Norms have a powerful influence on team behavior, and they are often difficult to change. Norms provide an important regulatory function in teams. Once they are developed and agreed on, misunderstandings should be fewer and a team member violating a norm (e.g., missing meetings) can be reminded of the group’s commitment to attendance. Some groups even apply sanctions to the violation of norms such as fines or social ostracism. However, sanctioning systems are ineffective if they are not applied consistently. Teams that have quality charters and strategies often outperform teams with poor quality charters and strategies. Charters are an important tool that the leader must have to get their team off to a good start by developing a sense of purpose and performance strategies.

9.7: Explain why team-shared mental models are important.

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Team mental models (TMMs) “are team members’ shared, organized understanding and mental representation of knowledge about key elements of the team’s relevant environment.” TMMs are related to effective team processes and performance because they serve a number of functions, including (1) allowing team members to interpret information similarly, (2) sharing expectations concerning the future, and (3) developing similar reasoning about why something happens. Teams with highly developed TMMs are fundamentally “on the same page” with respect to sharing a common view of what is occurring in the team. This makes decision making more efficient and enhances team performance.

9.8: Compare the leader options for participative decision making using the normative model.

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The normative decision-making model, which is when team decisions fall on a continuum ranging from leaders making the decision themselves to delegating the decision to the team. Participative decision making is the extent to which employers allow or encourage employees to share or participate in organizational decision making. The normative decision-making model ranges from decide (leader decides), consult (individually), consult (group), facilitate, and delegate. All but decide involve employee participation in decision making.

9.9: List and explain five team decision-making methods.

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Brainstorming is one of the most common forms of team decision making. Brainstorming should be used when the team needs to produce a creative solution. It enhances the creative process because idea generation is separated from idea evaluation. Consensus decision making is another technique that is commonly used in organizations. In many cases, consensus is preferable to voting (although voting is more common). Voting creates winners and losers and may result in a lack of commitment to implement the decision. In a consensus decision-making process, everyone can say they have been heard and will support the final decision. In practice, it is often required that votes be taken. Given that voting has a number of disadvantages, including dissatisfaction with decisions and lack of commitment, the leader should know that multivoting is another decision-making option. The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) is a more structured process that may be effective if there are status differences in the team or if the team has one or more dominating participants. The group meets face-to-face, but the discussion is more restricted than in brainstorming or consensus decision making. The stepladder technique is a newer technique and may also be an effective way to combat the challenge of dominating participants in the team. It has five basic steps: (1) Present the task; (2) Two-member discussion; (3) Add one member; (4) Repeat, adding one member at a time;  and (5) Final decision. Reach a final decision only after all members have been brought in and presented their ideas.