Refer to Pages 168–193.

7.1: Identify and discuss the three parts of the motivation process.

Refer to Page 169.

Motivation has been defined as “what a person does (direction), how hard a person works (intensity), and how long a person works (persistence).” Motivation is the process of energizing behavior by activating people’s needs and drives. Once energized, it is important to direct the behavior toward goals that are important to the organization. The third step is sustaining behavior. Research shows that goal-setting systems and reward systems are necessary to sustain behavior over the long term. Finally, for motivation to be effective, feedback is needed so that the processes of energizing and directing behavior stay on track.

7.2: Compare and contrast Maslow’s hierarchy with McClelland’s need theory.

Refer to Page 169.

The most well-known theory of need motivation is the Maslow hierarchy of needs. The theory was the first to point out that there are individual differences in motivation. The first level in the hierarchy of needs is physiological needs (e.g., hunger, sex, and other bodily needs). The next level is safety needs (e.g., the need for protection from physical harm). At the third level of the hierarchy are a person’s social needs (e.g., belongingness and friendship). The fourth level is esteem needs (e.g., status and recognition from others). Finally, at the top of the hierarchy is what Maslow termed self-actualization, which is the drive to meet our fullest capacity (e.g., growth and feeling fulfilled as a person). Physiological and safety needs are lower-order needs and social, esteem, and self-actualization are higher-order needs. When a need is not satisfied, it becomes dominant. Despite the popularity of Maslow’s hierarchy due to its simplicity and intuitive appeal, it has not been supported by research evidence. McClelland’s needs theory considers three fundamental needs. Need for achievement (nAch)—the drive to succeed at high levels. Need for power (nPow)—the need to influence others to do what you want. Need for affiliation (nAff)—the need for close personal relationships. McClelland’s theory has received more research support than other need theories; however, the application of the theory to motivate followers is limited because these needs are believed to be learned at a young age.

7.3: Produce an example of a SMART goal.

Refer to Page 171.

Answers will vary. SMART = specific, measurable, actionable, relevant, and time-based goals. Specific: A specific goal has been shown to be more motivating than a “do your best” goal. Measurable: Set concrete criteria for measuring progress toward the attainment of each goal. Attainable: Goals need to be challenging, but they also need to be seen as attainable by the person setting them. Relevant: The goal you set needs to matter—to the individual setting it and/or the organization. Time Based: To be motivating, goals should have a specific time frame. For example, a not-so-smart goal would be the following: “Improve your punctuality.” In comparison, an example of a SMART goal would be as follows: “Be at work by 8:30 a.m. every day this month because everyone being at work on time contributes to our team’s productivity.”

7.4: Describe the job characteristics theory (JCT) and why growth needs matter.

Refer to Page 173.

In this theory of motivation, jobs can be designed so that people are more motivated, satisfied, and perform better. Skill variety—the extent to which people use different skills and abilities at work. The employee is not doing the same repetitive tasks over and over. Task identity—the task is one that people experience from beginning to end. In other words, they identify with an entire work product. Task significance—the degree to which the job is seen as having an impact on others. The work does something good for society. Autonomy—the employee has the freedom to plan and perform his or her own work. The employees have discretion about their work and are not intensely supervised. Feedback—the job provides information on how effective the employee’s work is. Just doing the work itself provides performance feedback. The growth needs of employees affect the degree to which a person experiences meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results from their work.

7.5: Explain why fairness is a necessary condition for leadership using equity theory and the four types of organizational justice.

Refer to Page 177.

[Answers will vary] Equity theory focuses on distributive justice (what people receive as a result of their knowledge, skills, and effort on the job). Equity theory suggests that people may become demotivated or put forth less effort when they feel that what they give and what they get is not in balance. According to the theory, a person (the focal person, or FP) compares himself to the coworker (or CO). Next, he compares his inputs (skills, abilities, effort on the job) to his outcomes (e.g., a merit raise). Organizational justice is considered to have four components: distributive (equity), procedural, interactional, and informational. Distributive justice refers to the fairness of decisions made as perceived by followers as described above. Procedural justice is the perception of how fair the process was in making decisions that affect employees. Interpersonal justice refers to how employees are treated by their leaders including respect and propriety (which refers to whether the leader refrains from offending the follower with comments that are inappropriate). Informational justice refers to the perceived fairness of the communications made by leaders during a process. Fairness is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for effective leadership. The ability to develop high-quality relationships depends on following norms of procedural justice and ensuring that outcomes are fairly distributed. Interpersonal and informational justice are both important in support of this; leaders must respect followers and provide truthful explanations of how they make decisions. Fairness is pivotal to relationships between leadership and employee work attitudes, relationships with coworkers, and employee turnover. Also, employees with good relationships with their boss also engage in more organizational citizenship when they perceive a fair climate in the work group. Fairness issues emerge at the group level when followers compare their relationships with their boss (in-group or out-group) and the outcomes they receive.

7.6: Explain how the expectancy theory of motivation predicts effort.

Refer to Page 182

Expectancy theory has become a standard in motivation, as reflected by its incorporation as a general framework for a wide variety of research. The theory has three basic principles: (1) Employees decide to put forth effort when they believe that their effort will lead to good performance. This is called the effort à performance relationship, which is the probability that a person believes that their effort will lead to performance (designated as the E à P expectancy). (2) The employee’s performance will be evaluated accurately and will lead to rewards (e.g., pay raises, bonuses). This is the follower’s estimated probability that if they perform well, they will actually receive the reward from the organization (designated as the P à O instrumentality). (3) The employees value the rewards offered by the organization. One level of performance may have multiple outcomes (such as a salary increase and a bonus) (designated as the list of valences, Vs, which can be either positive or negative). So receiving a salary increase and a bonus has a positive (+) valence. At the same time, having to work late has a negative (–) valence.

7.7: Demonstrate the role of leaders in the motivation process, using path–goal theory (PGT).

Refer to Page 185.

PGT specifies four different motivating leadership behaviors: (1) Directive leadership—giving followers specific instructions about their tasks, providing deadlines, setting standards for performance, and explaining rules. (2) Supportive leadership—showing consideration, being friendly and approachable, and paying attention to the well-being of followers. (3) Participative leadership—allowing followers to have a voice in decisions that affect them, sharing information, inviting followers’ ideas and opinions. (4) Achievement-oriented leadership—challenging followers to perform at high levels, setting standards for excellence, showing confidence in followers’ ability to reach goals.