Refer to Pages 338-364.

13.1: Define stress, and discuss the estimated costs to business.

Refer to Page 339.

P-E fit theory defines stress as a perceived dynamic state involving uncertainty about something important. More specific, stress is “a discrepancy between an employee’s perceived state and desired state, provided that the presence of this discrepancy is considered important to the employee.” In other words, stress is the difference between the demands (or stressors) placed on a person and their ability to cope with the demands and reach their goals. Nearly half of all workers suffer from moderate to severe stress while on the job, according to a recent survey. And 66% of employees report that they have difficulty focusing on tasks at work because of stress. Stress has been called the “health epidemic of the 21st century” by the World Health Organization and is estimated to cost American businesses up to $300 billion a year. One study of more than 46,000 U.S. employees found health care costs were 46% higher for workers who experienced high stress.

13.2: Explain how stress affects performance, attitudes, and turnover.

Refer to Page 341.

Stress can be performance enhancing or disruptive. A study of executive stress found that the experience of challenging or rewarding job experiences related differently to outcomes than stress from associated with hindering or constraining job experiences. There are two general types of stress: challenge-related stress and hindrance-related stress. Challenge-related stress may be positive, or what is known as eustress, or “good stress” from the Greek root eu for “good.” Hindrance-related stress is excessive or undesirable constraints that interfere with an individual’s ability to achieve goals, creating “negative stress. Both forms of stress relate to psychological strain, but one study found that hindrance-related stress is more related to lessened loyalty and intentions to quit. Hindrance-related stress also negatively affects learning. However, a challenging learning environment increases learning. Stress negatively impacts job performance and attitudes. Stress relates to lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement as well as higher frustration (these are psychological outcomes). Second, stress is related to more use of health care, sick days, and workers’ compensation claims (physical outcomes). Third, stress is related to lower job performance, more counterproductive behavior, and accidents (behavioral outcomes).

13.3: Provide an example of the relationship between organizational change and stress.

Refer to Page 344.

[Examples will vary] Stress has been rising at the workplace due to organizational change. Change increases uncertainty and disrupts employees’ regular work routines. Employee resistance to organizational change is one of the most common sources of work stress. The new organizational reality is one of competition with mergers, acquisitions, downsizings, and restructurings. These forces have increased psychological strain from work. Uncertainty during organizational change may be related to layoffs, pay cuts, fewer promotion opportunities, and changes to the culture of the organization

13.4: Identify the stressors that come from the work environment.

Refer to Page 345.

People learn their roles in organizations and “act” them out daily. Roles can be a source of stress in a number of ways because they place demands on a person to fulfill expectations. Role ambiguity occurs where there is a lack of specificity or predictability about what a person’s role is. In short, the person does not know what is expected, which may be due to not understanding what a boss requires, for example. Role conflict occurs when there are incompatible demands regarding what a person’s role is. Role overload is a third form of role-related stress, and it is caused by too much work, time pressure, and deadlines that a person feels unable to meet.

13.5: Compare and contrast the three types of strain that may occur.

Refer to Page 350.

1. Physiological—high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, high cholesterol, stomach ulcers compromised immune system

2. Psychological—anxiety, burnout, emotional exhaustion, fatigue, hostility, irritation, tension, lower self-confidence, and self-esteem

3. Behavioral—accidents and errors, alcohol use, caffeine intake, drug use, smoking, workplace deviance (e.g., doing inferior work on purpose, stealing, damaging property)

13.6: Discuss the prevalence of work stress on a global scale.

Refer to Page 351.

The prevalence of work stress has been documented in numerous countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Sicily, Saudi Arabia, and China to name a few. Stress has been related to outcomes of lower satisfaction and increased turnover intentions in other cultures as well. Relationships among role stressors, self-efficacy, and burnout were studied in nine countries (i.e., United States, Germany, France, Brazil, Israel, Japan, China, Hong Kong, and Fiji). Findings indicated self-efficacy had a universally negative association with burnout across all regions.

13.7: Develop a plan for coping with stress during change.

Refer to Page 352

Coping is defined as “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.” There are two types of coping: behavioral methods (problem-solving behaviors) and cognitive methods (managing thoughts and emotions). Examples of behavioral (or active) coping strategies are keeping a positive outlook, working harder, and seeking advice and help. Examples of cognitive methods include reordering life priorities and convincing oneself that work isn’t all that important.

13.8: Recommend organizational interventions and policies that help employees cope with stress.

Refer to Page 354.

Given the rising costs of workplace stress, organizations have been addressing stress through a variety of policy changes and interventions. Preventive stress management is a set of methods that promote health at the workplace and avoid distress. Many organizations have wellness programs that offer workshops on time management, weight loss, alcohol and/or drug abuse, smoking cessation, and exercise. When an employee exhibits a clear stress reaction that is affecting his or her relationships with coworkers and performance, a referral may be made for counseling through an employee assistance program (EAP). These programs have become common in most large organizations. Work redesign is a way to increase the intrinsic motivation and performance of employees. The design of jobs may also lessen the experience of work stress.