LO 4-1 Describe the basic concept of perception.

Perception is the process by which we receive and interpret information from our environment. A number of factors influence and perhaps distort perception, including the perceiver, the envi­ronment, and the focal object. Perceptions are shaped by past experiences, culture, attitude, values, upbringing, and so on. This means that the nature of the perceiver has a strong influ­ence on the perceptual process. The context or the setting also affects the perception process. The person, thing, or event being interpreted also affects our perception.

LO 4-2 Explain the different types of perceptual distortions.

People process a huge amount of complex information, and their attempts to organize and sift this information can lead to inaccura­cies. There are a number of common perceptual distortions. Stereo­types are an individual’s fixed beliefs about the characteristics of a particular group. Selective attention is the tendency to selectively focus on aspects of situations that are most aligned with our own interests, values, and attitudes. Halo effect is a perception problem through which we form a positive or negative view of one aspect of an individual based on our overall impressions of that person. Primacy effect is a perception problem through which an individ­ual assesses a person quickly on the basis of the first information encountered. Recency effect is a perception problem through which we use the most recent information available to assess a per­son. Contrast effect takes place when people rank something higher or lower than they should as a result of exposure to recent events or situations. Projecting is a process through which people trans­fer their own thoughts, motivations, feelings, and desires to others. Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a person bases behavior on preexisting expectations about another person or situation in order to create an outcome aligned with those expectations. Impression management is the process by which we attempt to influence the perceptions others may have of us. A facet of impression manage­ment is ingratiation, by which an individual attempts to influence others by becoming more attractive or likeable.

LO 4-3 Apply attribution theory to more effectively interpret behavior.

Attribution theory holds that people look for two causes to explain the behavior of others: internal attributions, which are personal characteristics of others, and external attributions, which are situ­ational factors. The theory holds that people tend to use two types of causal attributions to look for ways to explain the behavior of others: internal attributions, which are personal characteristics; and external attributions, which are situational factors.

There are three types of determinants of attribution that influ­ence our internal and external attributions: distinctiveness, con­sensus, and consistency. Distinctiveness is the extent to which a person behaves consistently in similar situations. Consensus involves looking at how everyone else responds in the same sit­uation. Consistency is the extent to which a person responds in the same way over a period of time.

LO 4-4 Use reinforcement theory to understand learning and modify behavior.

Learning is an ongoing process through which individuals adjust their behavior based on experience. Reinforcement is defined as the application of consequences to establish patterns of behavior. Within reinforcement theory, behavior is determined exclusively by environmental factors such as external stimuli and other reinforcers.

The practical application of reinforcement process in the work­place is called organizational behavior modification, which is the use of behavioral techniques to reinforce positive work behavior and discourage unhelpful work behavior.

LO 4-5 Apply social cognitive theory to social learning and cognitive processes.

The social learning theory proposes that learning takes place through the observation, imitation, and the modeling of others within a social context. There are several important components to social learning theory. The first is self-efficacy, which describes our personal conviction in our ability to perform certain tasks or behaviors. The second component to social learning is vicarious learning, a process of learning that involves watching the actions or behaviors of another person. Vicarious learning influences our degree of self-efficacy. The third factor of social learning is self-regulation, in which people set goals that create a discrep­ancy between the desired state and the current state.