LO 5-1 Explain the basic motivation process.

Motivation is a process by which behavior is energized, mean­ing how hard we work; directed, meaning what we choose to work at; and maintained meaning how long we intend to work for to achieve objectives. Content theories of motivation explain why people have different needs at different times and how these needs motivate behavior. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s need theory, and Herz­berg’s two-factor theory are all examples of content theories. Process theories describe the cognitive processes through which needs are translated into behavior. Examples of process theories include equity theory, expectancy theory, and goalsetting theory.

LO 5-2 Compare the various needs theories of motivation.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs identifies five levels of individual needs, with physiological needs at the bottom of the hierarchy and self-actualization needs at the top. ERG theory suggests that people are motivated by three categories of needs—existence, related­ness, and growth needs— that can be satisfied in any order or at the same time depending on the circumstances. Herzberg’s two-factor theory proposes that the first step to employee satisfaction is to eliminate poor hygiene factors. Managers then need to use motivators such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility to build job sat­isfaction. McClelland’s acquired needs theory suggests three main categories of needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power. We all have a dominant motivator, and each of the motivators, in particular achievement, can be learned.

LO 5-3 Examine equity theory in the context of organizational justice and distinguish among the predictable outcomes of perceived inequity.

The concept of equity theory, introduced by psychologist J. Stacey Adams, holds that motivation is based on our perception of how fairly we are being treated in comparison with others. According to this theory, our perception of what is fair depends on the ratio O/I where O = their outcomes like the recognition, pay, and status we enjoy and I = inputs like our effort, experience, and ability.

Organizational justice describes how people perceive fairness in workplace practices. Distributive justice is the degree to which people perceive outcomes to be fairly allocated. Procedural jus­tice is the degree to which people perceive the implementation of company policies and procedures to be fair.

LO 5-4 Apply goal setting theory in organizational contexts.

Goal-setting theory suggests that human performance is directed by conscious goals and intentions. Effective goals are specific, difficult, accepted by employees, and accompanied by regular feedback.

LO 5-5 Describe the expectancy theory of motivation and its practical implications.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory holds that people will choose certain behaviors over others with the expectation of a certain outcome. The theory describes motivation as a function of an individual’s beliefs concerning effort-to-performance relationships (expec­tancy), work–outcome relationships (instrumentality), and the desirability of various work outcomes (valence).