LO 12-1 Discuss the concept of power and its relationship to leadership.

The concept of power, which is the capacity to influence the actions of others, is inextricably linked with leadership. Recent psychological research has suggested that coercive power is a myth, and that true power lies in social intelligence or our ability to negotiate, resolve conflicts, and understand the goals of oth­ers. Depending on their psychological make-up, different types of leaders may exert their power to influence in different ways, which can lead to positive or negative outcomes.

LO 12-2 Identify the various sources of power.

Organizational power can be broken into three main aspects: legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power. Legitimate power is the right to ask others to do things within the scope of the leader’s authority. Reward power is the use of incentives to influence the actions of others. Coercive power controls the behavior of others through punishments, threats, or sanctions.

Personal power can be broken into two main types: expert power and referent power. Expert power is the ability to influence the behavior of others through the possession of knowledge or exper­tise on which they depend. Referent power is influence over others based on their desire to identify and be associated with the leader.

LO 12-3 Describe tactics for influencing others.

There are several different types of tactics we can use to influ­ence others:

• Rational appeals: The use of logic, reason, and evidence to convince another person that cooperation in a task is worthwhile

Inspirational appeals: The use of emotions to rouse enthusiasm for the task by appealing to the values and ideals of others

• Upward appeals: The argument that the task has been requested by higher management, or a request to higher management to assist in gaining cooperation

• Personal appeals: Requests to cooperate on the basis of friendship or as a personal favor

• Consultation: The offer of participation or consultation in the decision-making process

• Exchange: The promise of rewards to persuade another per­son to cooperate

• Coalition building: Reference to the support of others as a reason for someone to agree to a request

• Ingratiation: An effort to win favor and the good graces of others before making a request

• Silent authority: a passive tactic that relies on unspoken but acknowledged power.

• Information control: withholding key information to influence outcomes.

• Assertiveness: The use of demands or threats to persuade someone to carry out a task

LO 12-4 Outline the results of different influence tactics.

The three basic outcomes of influence tactics are commitment, compliance, and resistance. Commitment occurs when people are enthusiastic and fully in agreement with an action or decision and are motivated to put in the extra effort to successfully reach a goal. Compliance occurs when people are indifferent to a task and make only the minimal effort necessary to complete a goal. Resistance takes place when people oppose the influencer’s request by refusing to carry out a task or arguing against carrying out a task.

LO 12-5 Identify the causes and possible consequences of organizational politics.

Organizational politics is behavior that is not formally sanc­tioned by the organization and that is focused on maximizing our self-interest, often at the expense of the organization or other employees. They include ingratiation, self-promotion, strong influence tactics, coalition building, connections with powerful allies, the taking of credit for positive events and the success of others, and the circumvention of legitimate channels to secure resources that would be otherwise unattainable.

People are more likely to engage in political behavior in organi­zations in which resources such as monetary rewards or promo­tions are limited. Similarly, organizations going through periods of organizational change tend to have a more politically centered workforce.

The vast majority of research evidence suggests negative effects of organizational politics, including increased strain and stress, higher organizational turnover, decreased job satisfac­tion and performance, lower morale, and reduced organizational commitment. However, politics can be used for positive means when people possess political skill, the ability to understand and influence others for the good of the organization, and hold the interests of the organization above their own interests, pro­vide high levels of feedback to employees, and maintain good working relationships to achieve results.