Students who read this chapter should be able to do the following:

4.1 Explain how gender stereotypes influence expectant parents and early child development.

4.2 Differentiate social learning and cognitive theories of gender development.

4.3 Describe the experiences of gender-nonconforming children and the factors underlying gender nonconformity in childhood.

4.4 Explain how sex and gender influence biological, social, and identity changes in adolescence and emerging adulthood.

4.5 Evaluate how cultural ideals and gender shape the experiences of women and men in middle and later adulthood.