4.1 Summarize the preclassical notion of crime and criminals.

4.2 Explain the assumptions about human nature held by the classical school and the elements of punishment outlined by Beccaria.

4.3 Compare the differences between the classical and positivist schools.

4.4 Compare specific and general deterrence in the context of perceptual deterrence theory.

4.5 Expound on the legacies of the classical and positivist schools.

4.6 Evaluate the policy implications of deterrence theories.