This chapter focuses on how empirical observations can be made using the written record, which is composed of documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, and other written, oral, or visual materials.

Content analysis involves several distinct steps.

• The first step is selecting materials germane to the research subject (the sampling frame) and then sampling the actual material to be analyzed from that sampling frame.
• The second step is to choose the recording unit—how to divide the content into standard units for analysis (a single word, paragraph, page, etc.).
• The third task is to define the categories of content that are going to be measured—the topics of interest within the content.
• The final step is deciding the numeric values that will be used to code each category in each recording unit.
   

Some written records are ongoing and cover an extensive period of time; others are more episodic.

The running record is more likely to be produced by organizations than by private citizens; it is carefully stored and easily accessed; and it is available for long period of time. A good example would be government employment records or other statistical records.
 

Episodic records are not part of an ongoing, systematic record-keeping program but are produced and preserved in a more casual, personal, and accidental manner are called—like personal diaries and correspondence, or even brochures and pamphlets.
 

There are six advantages of the written record:

• Allows us access to subjects that may be difficult or impossible to research through direct, personal contact.
• Data gleaned from archival sources is that the raw data are usually nonreactive.
• Sometimes the record has existed long enough to permit analyses of political phenomena over time.
• Larger sample size than would be possible through either interviews or direct observation.
• Lower cost in both money and time for the researcher.
• Raises fewer ethical issues than either first-hand observation or interviewing.
   

There are five disadvantages of the written record

• Record keepers may not preserve all pertinent materials but rather selectively.
• Large gaps exist in many archives.
• Not only may the record be incomplete or selectively preserved, but it also may be inaccurate or falsified, either inadvertently or on purpose.
• Some written records are unavailable to researchers (classified or sealed, for example).
• May lack a standard format because it is kept by different people.
   

Advantages of the written record:

• Allows access to subjects that may be difficult or impossible to research through direct, personal contact.
• Raw data are usually nonreactive.
• Sometimes the record has existed long enough to permit analyses of political phenomena over time.
• The written record often allows us to increase the sample size above what would be possible through either interviews or direct observation.
• Low cost since costs are borne by the record keepers not the researchers.
   

Disadvantages of the written record:

• Record keepers may not preserve all pertinent materials but rather selectively save those that are the least embarrassing, controversial, or problematic.
• Large gaps in time exist in many archives due to loss of records or failure to collect records.
• Written record content may be biased by inaccurate or falsified record keeping, either inadvertently or on purpose.
• Some written records are unavailable to researchers—like classified documents.
• The written record may lack a standard format because it is kept by different people.