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Greaves, C.J., and Farbus, L. (2006). Effects of a creative and social activity on the health and well-being of socially isolated older people: Outcomes from a multi-method observational study. Perspectives in Public Health ,126(3).134-142.
Depression and social isolation affect one in seven people over 65 and there is increasing recognition that social isolation adversely affects long-term health. Research indicates that interventions, which promote active social contact, which encourage creativity, and which use mentoring, are more likely to positively affect health and well-being. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a complex intervention for addressing social isolation in older people, embodying these principles: The Upstream Healthy Living Centre. Mentors delivered a series of individually-tailored activities, with support tailing off over time. Two hundred and twenty nine participants were offered the Geriatric Depression Scale, SF12 Health Quality of Life, and Medical Outcomes Social Support scale at baseline, then 6 months and 12 months post intervention. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 26 participants, five careers and four referring health professionals to provide a deeper understanding of outcomes. Data were available for 172 (75%) participants at baseline, 72 (53% of those eligible) at 6 months and 51 (55%) at 12 months. Baseline scores indicated social isolation and high morbidity for mental and physical health. The intervention was successful in engaging this population (80% of referrals were engaged in some form of activity). At 6 months, there were significant improvements in SF12 mental component, and depression scores, but not in perceived physical health or social support. At 12 months, there were significant improvements in depression and social support and a marginally significant improvement in SF12 physical component (p = 0.06), but the SF12 mental component change was not maintained. The qualitative data showed that the intervention was well-received by participants. The data indicated a wide range of responses (both physical and emotional), including increased alertness, social activity, self-worth, optimism about life, and positive changes in health behavior. Stronger, ‘transformational’ changes were reported by some participants. Individual tailoring seemed to be a key mediator of outcomes, as was overcoming barriers relating to transport and venues. Key processes underlying outcomes were the development of a positive group identity, and building of confidence/self-efficacy. The Upstream model provides a practical way of engaging socially isolated elderly people and generating social networks. The data suggest a range of psychosocial and physical health benefits. Although there are limitations in attributing causality in uncontrolled studies, the data seem to indicate a reversal of the expected downward trends in some aspects of participants’ health, and suggest that this approach is worth further investigation.

Ling, R. and Stald, G. (2010). Mobile communities: Are we talking about a village, a clan, or a small group? American Behavioral Scientist 53(8),1133-1147.
A central issue in the adoption and use of information and communication technology is the degree to which it either contributes to or detracts from the development of social cohesion in the small group. When considering this question, one need recognize that the social dynamics of the mobile telephone are different from those of the Internet. The device affords point-to-point interaction that makes us individually addressable regardless of where we or our interlocutors may be. This analysis draws on survey material from Scandinavia. It is based on a random sample of approximately 1,800 persons in Norway surveyed in December 2007 and January 2008. The data were collected with a Web-based survey of a known population, as supplemented with telephone interviews to cover those who traditionally do not use the Web (generally, persons older than 50 years of age). Data from two surveys of 15- to 24-year-old Danes were included: one from 2004 (343 respondents) and one from 2006 (629 respondents). Research reported here, and by others, has found that the mobile telephone contributes to the development and maintenance of social cohesion within the closest sphere of friends and family. If community is construed to be more restricted and a result of this type of cohesion, then it is different in character than that used when discussing net-based networking.

Hampton, K. and Gupta, N. (2008). Community and social interaction in the wireless city: Wi-Fi use in public and semi-public spaces. New Media & Society, 10(6):831-850.
A significant body of research has addressed whether fixed internet use increases, decreases or supplements the ways in which people engage in residential and workplace settings, but few studies have addressed how wireless internet use in public and semi-public spaces influences social life. Ubiquitous wi-fi adds a new dimension to the debate over how the internet may influence the structure of community. Will wireless internet use facilitate greater engagement with co-located others or encourage a form of ‘public privatism’? This article reports the findings of an exploratory ethnographic study of how wi-fi was used and influenced social interactions in four different settings: paid and free wi-fi cafes in Boston, MA and Seattle,WA. This study found contrasting uses for wireless internet and competing implications for community. Two types of practices, typified in the behaviors of ‘true mobiles’ and ‘placemakers’, offer divergent futures for how wireless internet use may influence social relationships.

Encyclopedia Articles

“Generalizability Theory.” Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods, (2004): 419-421.
Generalizability theory provides an extensive conceptual framework and set of statistical machinery for quantifying and explaining the consistencies and inconsistencies in observed scores for objects of measurement. To an extent, the theory can be viewed as an extension of classical test theory through the application of certain ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) procedures. Classical theory postulates that an observed score can be decomposed into a TRUE SCORE and a single undifferentiated random error term. By contrast, generalizability theory substitutes the notion of universe score for true score and liberalizes classical theory by employing ANOVA methods that allow an investigator to untangle the multiple sources of error that contribute to the undifferentiated error in classical theory.

Perhaps the most important and unique feature of generalizability theory is its conceptual framework, which focuses on certain types of studies and universes. A generalizability (G) study involves the collection of a sample of data from a universe of admissible observations that consists of facets defined by an investigator. Typically, the principal result of a G study is a set of estimated random-effects variance components for the universe of admissible observations. A D (decision) study provides estimates of universe score variance, error variances, certain indexes that are like RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS, and other statistics for a measurement procedure associated with an investigator-specified universe of generalization.

In univariate generalizability theory, there is only one universe (of generalization) score for each object of measurement. In multivariate generalizability theory, each object of measurement has multiple universe scores. Univariate generalizability theory typically employs random-effects models, whereas MIXED-EFFECTS MODELS are more closely associated with multivariate generalizability theory.