Chapter Summaries

  • A research question is the fundamental question inherent in any research topic under investigation.
  • Qualitative research questions are typically open-ended, providing for a holistic view (ask how or what). Quantitative research questions are more focused, usually on only a few variables.
    • Research questions should not require a simple yes or no answer.
  • Research questions should not be stated in a manner that assumes an answer before data have been collected.
  • Research questions should be based in the body of literature related to the topic.
  • Research questions must be able to be answered by collecting available data.
  • Research questions must be ethical.
    • Research may be unethical if the study exposes participants to any physical, emotional, and psychological risks of any kind.
  • Research questions must be important and feasible to answer.
  • Research questions should truly reflect the topic being studied.
  • Hypotheses are tentative but intelligent, informed predictions about the findings of a study.
  • There are three types of hypotheses: null hypotheses, nondirectional research hypotheses, and directional research hypotheses.
  • The null hypothesis states that no effect, difference, or relationship will be found between variables.
  • The nondirectional research hypothesis states that an effect, a difference, or a relationship will be found but does not specify the direction of the effect, the difference, or the relationship.
  • The directional research hypothesis also states that an effect, a difference, or a relationship will be found and specifically indicates the direction of the effect, the difference, or the relationship.
  • A research design is the basic blueprint for conducting an action research study.
  • Qualitative research designs are less structured and more holistic in their approach to conducting a study than are quantitative designs.
  • A case study focuses on the detailed examination of a single setting, a single subject, or a particular event.
  • In observational studies, the researcher becomes an integral part of the setting of the study. The researcher may participate as an observer, an observer as participant, a participant as observer, or a full participant.
  • The constant comparative method is a qualitative research design for studies involving multiple data sources, where data analysis begins early in the study and is nearly completed by the end of data collection.
  • Quantitative research designs fall into four categories: descriptive designs, correlational designs, group comparisons, and single-subject designs.
  • Descriptive designs simply attempt to describe the current status of the phenomenon of interest. Descriptive designs include observational research and survey research.
    • In observational research, as a quantitative design, the focus is on a specific aspect of behavior, perhaps a single particular variable.
    • Survey research involves acquiring information from individuals representing one or more groups--perhaps about their opinions, attitudes, or characteristics--by specifically asking them questions and then tabulating their responses
  • Correlational designs investigate the extent to which a relationship exists between two or more variables.
    • Correlation coefficients report two aspects of the relationship between given variables: the direction of the relationship and the strength of the relationship. The strength of the relationship is indicated by the magnitude of the numerical value of the coefficient.
    • A positive correlation indicates that as the scores or values on one variable increase, the values on the other variable also increase, and vice versa.
    • A negative correlation means that as the values on one variable increase, the values on the other variable decrease.
    • The results of a correlational study cannot be used to explain causation.
  • Group comparison designs examine cause-and-effect relationships and involve a manipulated independent variable and a dependent variable measured across all groups.
  • Group comparison designs include causal-comparative designs (which explore the cause of an effect after the fact), preexperimental designs (which typically involve one group simply being “compared” with itself), and quasi-experimental designs (which involve two groups being compared with each other on a common dependent variable).
  • Mixed-methods research designs involve the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data.
  • Many action research studies tend to “align” better with mixed-methods research designs than qualitative or quantitative methods alone.
  • In an explanatory mixed-methods design, the educator-researcher first collects quantitative data and then gathers additional qualitative data in order to help support, explain, or elaborate on the quantitative results; the focus is on the quantitative data.
  • In an exploratory mixed-methods design, qualitative data are collected first, followed by quantitative data, in order to further explain any relationships discovered in the qualitative data; emphasis is placed on the qualitative data.
  • In a triangulation mixed-methods design, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected at about the same time and are given equal emphasis.
  • Ethical treatment of students and colleagues--as well as their respective data--must be a key component of designing your action research study.
    • Most educational resource must go through a review process. These are typically conducted by review boards such as Human Subjects Review Boards (HSRBs) or Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).
    • There are several training modules for preparing to address ethical issues in educational research.
    • Issues to consider regarding the ethics of a research study include participant permission or consent, confidentiality, the principle of beneficence, the principle or honesty, and the principle of importance.
  • Getting organized for your research can include: integrating action research within the context of what you typically do in the classroom, developing a research schedule, and maintaining flexibility in the research schedule and topic area.