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Journal Article 9.1: Marvel, J. D., & Resh, W. G. (2015). Bureaucratic discretion, client demographics, and representative bureaucracy. The American Review of Public Administration, 45, 281–310.

Abstract: For passive representation to translate into active representation, bureaucrats must have discretion. Despite its importance to representative bureaucracy theory, though, discretion has received little empirical attention in public administration. We seek to address this shortcoming by examining the determinants of bureaucratic discretion, paying particular attention to how the demographic characteristics of clients and bureaucrats interact to influence the amount of discretion that individual bureaucrats possess. Specifically, we examine whether the amount of discretion that minority bureaucrats have is positively related to the percentage of an organization’s clients who are from the same minority group. We argue that there are three reasons to expect a positive relationship: client demand, managerial deference to bureaucratic expertise, and bureaucratic appropriation. Our findings suggest that a positive relationship exists for African American bureaucrats, but not for Hispanic bureaucrats.

Journal Article 9.2: Smith, A. E. & Monaghan, K. R. (September 2011). Some ceilings have more cracks: Representative bureaucracy in federal regulatory agencies. The American Review of Public Administration, 43, 50-71.

Abstract: In recent decades, representative bureaucracy has been a core area of interest, both in theory and in practice, in public administration. The focus on representative bureaucracy is important because the characteristics of bureaucrats influence the nature, scope, and implementation of public policies. Integrating management literature on men and women in leadership with existing work on representative bureaucracy, this study constructed a new data set examining the distribution of women in leadership in 118 U.S. federal regulatory organizations. We find that women remain underrepresented in federal regulatory agency leadership but not in the same magnitude as in political representation and private organization leadership. Specifically, women are expected to get into leadership positions in organizations working in “feminine” policy areas and where a woman holds the top level of leadership. In addition, the proportion of women in upper-level leadership positions is expected to increase in agencies with a higher likelihood of failure when such agencies are less visible.

Journal Article 9.3: Clark, R. C., Ochs, H. L., & Frazier, M. (March 2013). Representative bureaucracy: The politics of access to policy-making positions in the federal executive service. Public Personnel Management, 42, 75-89.

Abstract: Does the bureaucracy represent the interests of the public or react to the partisan and ideological demands of political principals? This study uses data from the federal workforce reports and the U.S. Office of Personnel Management’s Central Personnel Data File to demonstrate that partisanship and ideology influence the demographic composition of the federal senior executives. The analysis indicates that fluctuation between administrations is largely attributed to presidents nominating and appointing individuals who share similar ideological views. The analysis also suggests that political control by ideologically driven principals has the potential to perpetuate divisiveness over polarizing issues. The partisan and ideological influences that continue to influence access to policy-making positions contribute to the perpetuation of patterned disparities in the representation of interests and undermine government performance.

Journal Article 9.4: Marion, D. E. (November 1986). The federal bureaucracy and separation of powers: A view from the founding. Administration & Society, 18, 291-314.

Abstract: This article discusses the federal bureaucracy from the perspective of the founders, Madison and Hamilton, and the Federalist Papers. The author affirms that it is important to look at the instruction of both Hamilton and Madison and that effective government demands an administration that is trusted by the people.