13-1 Discuss sociological concepts that relate to the body, including sexuality, health and beauty, body modifications, and risky behaviors.

13-2 Outline the issues studied in medical sociology, including the U.S. medical profession, the health care system and its weaknesses and inequities, and consumerism in health care.

13-3 Discuss the influence of globalization on health, illness and disease, and health care.

In many ways, beauty has become a commodity that can be bought. The emphasis on beauty has also led to more attention to physical activity and its links to healthy bodies. Body modifications are an example of society’s increase in reflexivity and have become more common. The explosion of sociological interest in the body can be traced to the work of Michel Foucault. This field is defined by a general focus on the relationship between the body and society and culture. It encompasses concerns such as the gendered body, sexuality, and bodily pain.

The medical profession has gone through a process of depro­fessionalization, characterized by a decline in power and autonomy as well as of status and wealth among members. Unlike doctors, nurses have never been able to achieve full professional status.

Health inequalities in the United States are often linked with social class, race, and gender. The full impact of the Affordable Care Act remains unclear. Even with the law’s full implementation, there is broad consensus that the U.S. health care system remains seri­ously flawed, with higher costs and lower outcomes than in the rest of the developed world.

Patients have become more active consumers in the health care system. For example, they use the Internet to locate doctors, shop for the lowest prices on procedures, read fellow patients’ reviews, and become more knowledgeable about health and health care.

Global disparities in health and health care are tied to globaliza­tion. Individuals in the Global South suffer disproportionately from hunger and forms of malnutrition, including obesity and undernutrition. The spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS and Ebola is linked to globalization and increased global mobility. The ability to implement new medical technologies and afford new treatments clearly varies by region, with the global South lagging far behind the global North.