Chapter 11 • Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis

• Sampling techniques in qualitative research are intentional, as opposed to random.
• This type of sampling is known as purposeful sampling.
• There are several specific types of purposeful sampling:
  
  • In maximum variation sampling, the researcher selects cases that differ on an important characteristic.
  • Extreme case sampling focuses on the sampling of an outlying case.
  • Typical sampling involves the selection of a person or site that is typical to outsiders.
  • Theory or concept sampling helps the researcher generate or discover a new theory or concept.
  • In homogeneous sampling, sites or individuals are selected because they possess a similar trait.
  • Critical sampling focuses on individuals or sites that represent in dramatic terms the phenomenon being studied.
  • Opportunistic sampling allows the researcher to sample for new and different information as questions emerge in the study.
  • Snowball sampling relies on participants to recommend other potential participants for the study.
  • Confirming or disconfirming sampling allows the researcher to seek additional data to confirm or disconfirm preliminary findings.
• Qualitative research sample sizes are typically very small, although they may range from a single individual or site to as many as 30 or 40.
  
  • It is the researcher’s responsibility to strike a balance between the amount of data to be collected and the depth of data sought.
• There are numerous ways to collect qualitative research data.
• Observations involve carefully watching and systematically recording what you see and hear in a setting.
• Observations may be structured, unstructured, or semistructured.
• Researchers may assume several roles along the participant–observer continuum.
  
  • When the researcher is in an observer role, participants may not even know they are being observed.
  • An observer as participant is primarily an observer but has some interaction in the setting.
  • A participant as observer acts as an observer but also interacts more formally with participants.
  • A full participant is a researcher who is also a fully functioning member of the community.
• Observations are recorded in the form of field notes.
• When observing and taking field notes, it is good practice to include observer’s comments, which are preliminary interpretations of observational data.
• Interviews are formal conversations between the researcher and participants in the study.
• Interviews may be conducted individually or in groups, known as focus groups.
• Before interviewing participants, it is best to prepare an interview guide to be closely followed during data collection.
• Interviews may be structured, semistructured, or open-ended.
• Journals—including student journals, teacher journals, and class journals—can also be used to collect qualitative data at the research site.
• Validity of research data deals with the extent to which the data collected accurately measure what the researcher intended to measure.
• When establishing the validity of qualitative data, researchers are concerned with the data’s trustworthiness.
• Trustworthiness is established by examining four criteria: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.
• Additional criteria that can be used to establish the validity of qualitative research include descriptive validity, interpretive validity, theoretical validity, evaluative validity, and generalizability.
• Triangulation is a process of using multiple methods, data collection strategies, data sources, and sometimes multiple researchers to enhance validity.
• Persistent and prolonged participation in the study site will also enhance the validity of the research.
• Enlisting other professionals to help review and critique your data collection and analysis to enhance the study’s validity is known as peer debriefing.
• Having an outsider review the final report is called an external audit, and can also enhance validity.
• Member checking is a process of asking participants to review the accuracy of the research report.
• Reflexivity—the process of documenting and evaluating your interpretations, assumptions, and biases—also aids in establishing validity.
• Although there is not a single method for analyzing qualitative data, the general approach is a process of inductive analysis.
• Inductive analysis focuses on three main steps: organization of the data, description of coded themes, and interpretation of those themes.
• Numerous software programs are available to assist the researcher in organizing and coding data.
• Qualitative data analysis is complex and time-consuming. Multiple interpretations are a distinct possibility.