Chapter Summary

        American government is a massive, complex, and often confusing set of institutions. It contains numerous organizations but lacks any central organizing principle. Much of the structure of American government was developed on an ad hoc basis to address particular problems at particular times. Yet, even with a more coherent structure, many of the same problems might still arise in the implementation of programs. Many problems are inherent in any government but are exacerbated by the complex and diffuse structure of government in the United States.

        For public policy, implementation is a vital step in the process of governing because it involves putting programs into action and producing effects for citizens. The difficulty of producing desired effects, or indeed any effects, means that policy is a much more difficult commodity to deliver to citizens than is commonly believed. The barriers to effective implementation often discourage individuals and organizations from engaging in the activities devised for their benefit. Public management then becomes a matter of threatening or cajoling organizations into complying with stated objectives or of convincing those organizations that their goals can best be accomplished through the programs that have been authorized.