Chapter 3

Summary:
The classical school of thought postulates that people have free will to choose between criminal and lawful behavior. Neoclassical criminology views the accused as exempted from conviction is circumstances prevented the exercise of free will. Positivist criminology is a philosophical approach that emphasizes criminal actors rather than the criminal act. Biological determinism focuses on the biological reasoning’s behind criminal behavior. Criminal chromosomes such as the XXY chromosome are part of the biological determinism perspective, as well as the three body types (endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic), twin studies, and adoption studies. Psychological rationales focus on the link between mental states or antisocial personality and criminal behavior. Sociocultural explanations have several different theories contained within. Learning theory believes criminal behaviors are learned from associating with others and social interactions and experiences. Control theories postulate that criminal behavior results when social controls are weakened. Labeling theory hold that persons acquire labels that are deviant or criminal. Critical theory argues that crime is largely a product of capitalism. Feminist theory emphasizes gender involvement in crime. White collar crimes are committed when wealthy or powerful individuals in the course of their professions or occupations commit crimes. The FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports was created in 1929 to meet a need for reliable crime statistics. The hierarchy rule applies, reporting only the most serious offense of several that were committed. The national Incident-Based Reporting System was created in 1988. NIBRS does not have the hierarchy rule and offenses are described in more detail. The National Crime Victimization Survey is a random survey of households that measures crime committed against victims.

Objectives:

• Explain early beliefs concerning the causes of crime prior to the mid-1700s
   
• Describe how Beccaria and the classical school formed the foundation for our explaining crime in more rational terms
   
• Delineate how the positivist school of criminology attempted to explain criminality
   
• Delineate the various biological theories of crime, to include Lombroso’s “born criminal,” the “criminal” chromosome, and studies of body type, twins, and adopted children
   
• Review the psychological influences of crime that have been put forth
   
• Discuss the several social and cultural explanations of crime—generally how people’s living in social groups might shape their behavior
   
• Review the fundamental aspects of feminist theory— explanation for women becoming much more engaged in criminal activities since the 1970s
   
• Describe the nature and types of white-collar crime
   
• Explain the three primary methods for measuring

Outline:

• Classical and Positivist Theories
   
  • The Classical School
     
  • Neoclassical Criminology
     
  • Positivist Criminology
     
• Biological Determinism
   
  • A Throwback?
     
  • Aberrant or “Criminal” Chromosomes
     
  • Other Biological Studies
     
• Psychological Rationales
   
  • Explanations of crime that link it to mental states or antisocial personality
     
  • Sigmund Freud
     
  • Edwin Sutherland
     
• Sociocultural Explanations
   
  • Social Structure Theory
     
  • Social Process Theories
     
  • Critical Theory
     
• Women and Crime
   
  • Feminist Theory
     
  • Equal Employment Opportunity Act in 1972, women were given the right to compete with men for jobs and promotions, and to receive the same compensation upon being hired
     
  • Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, which required employers to treat pregnancy, childbirth, and related medical conditions in the same manner as any other temporary disability
     
  • Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, allow­ing employees to take 12 weeks of unpaid leave for the birth or adoption of a child, helped women to enter the labor force
     
  • New breed
     
• White-Collar Crime
   
  • Corporate crimes
     
  • Theoretical Foundation
     
  • Origin and Measurement Problems
     
  • Types
     
  • Related Fraudulent Acts
     
• In Their Own Words: Offenders Speak
   
  • Using a variety of field-research methods (including interviews with active offenders, incarcerated individuals, and probationers and parolees), researchers have allowed us to learn from actual criminals—armed robbers, burglars, and carjackers—and thus narrow the “distance” between students and their criminal subjects
     
  • Most difficult part of armed robbery: transfer of goods
     
  • Carjackers motivated by:
     
• How Much Crime in the United States? Depends on Whom You Ask
   
  • The FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports
     
  • The National Incident-Based Reporting System
     
  • The National Crime Victimization Survey