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Article 1: Correlates and Consequences of Peer Victimization: Gender Differences in Direct and Indirect Forms of Bullying                           

Abstract: Research on school-based violence and bullying suggests that males are more likely to be both perpetrators and victims of bullying. Because of this, until recently, the experiences of females have been somewhat overlooked. Evidence suggests, however, that definition and measurement issues may be at play; girls, for instance, are more likely than boys to experience indirect forms of bullying such as teasing. To what extent have the correlates and consequences of bullying victimization been misspecified due to an emphasis on direct forms of bullying, such as physical violence, which disproportionately affects boys? The authors use data from two waves of a longitudinal panel study of 1,222 youths in 15 schools across the United States to address this question by examining the correlates and consequences for both boys and girls of two forms of bullying. Findings suggest a number of important gender similarities and differences in indirect and direct bullying victimization.
 

Article 2: Social Disorganization and Gang Homicides in Chicago: A Neighborhood Level Comparison of Disaggregated Homicides                           

Abstract: This study examines gang-motivated homicides in Chicago neighborhoods between 1985 and 1995. Qualitative studies have illustrated that gang-motivated homicides may have different characteristics than other types of homicides. Particularly at the neighborhood level, gang homicides have not yet been fully studied, and thus little is known about the interaction between gang violence and the neighborhoods they operate in. By examining the effects of social disorganization on both gang-related homicides and other types of homicides—such as intimate killings and homicides committed during street robberies—this study explores the relative uniqueness of gang homicides. Results indicate that social disorganization theory helps explain various types of homicides, including gang homicides. Nonetheless, gang homicides are also different from other types of homicides, justifying more research that looks at these homicides as a unique type of violence.
 

Article 3. Girls, Gangs, and Getting Out: Gender Differences and Similarities in Leaving the Gang

Abstract: This study draws from role exit theory and feminist criminology to examine whether the catalysts and consequences of gang disengagement differ between males and females. We analyze data on 143 individuals interviewed about their status as former gang members in Los Angeles, CA, and Phoenix, AZ, and assess whether there are gender differences across three interrelated components of disengaging from gangs: (1) the motivations for leaving the gang, (2) sources of support in the exit process, and (3) real and perceived residual concerns and consequences in transitioning out of the gang. Very few differences in the gang disengagement process were found between females and males. Females reported continued concerns about threats to their family, while males reported continued police harassment after leaving the gang. Overall, findings suggest that group processes shape disengagement experiences regardless of gender.
 

Article 4. Moving Risk Factors into Developmental Theories of Gang Membership

Abstract: Several quantitative longitudinal studies of youth gang members—particularly those embedded in well-designed studies of large, representative samples of children and adolescents—have expanded interest in risk factors for gang membership. Drawing on recent research findings, this article aims to review and synthesize risk factors for gang involvement and to integrate these in a theoretical explanation of youth gang membership. Research-supported risk factors from other studies are combined with variables in Thornberry et al.’s interactional theory of gang membership to form a broader developmental theory of gang involvement. Program and policy implications are also drawn.