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Article 1: The Importance of School: Protecting At-Risk Youth From Early Offending

Abstract: Using longitudinal data, this study explored the protective effect of a school bond (on violent and nonviolent delinquency) across a variety of risk factors. A strong school bond protected children with early aggression from continuing on in violence two years later. A strong school bond also protected children with numerous environmental risks from violent and nonviolent offending. Finally, a strong school bond acted as a protective factor against the influence of peers who were delinquent (for nonviolent offending only). From a policy perspective, these findings suggest that zero-tolerance policies that aim to exclude children considered to be a problem through suspensions or expulsions could be counterproductive.
 

Article 2: Delinquent Peers and Offending: Integrating Social Learning and Biosocial Theory                           

Abstract: Measures of delinquent peers have been found to predict a wide variety of antisocial behaviors, but few studies have examined the role that biological factors may play in moderating the delinquent peers–delinquency relationship. Using a sample of adolescent males drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (N = 3,557), we explore whether variants of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) interact with associations with substance-using peers to affect self-reported delinquency. Results of negative binomial regressions reveal that affiliations with delinquent peers interact with the 10R allele of DAT1 to influence offending, net of control variables for self-control, and respondent’s substance use. Most important, a statistically significant effect of affiliations with delinquent peers on delinquency is only evident for males who carry two 10R DAT1 alleles (vs. zero or one). Thus, DAT1 may be implicated in antisocial behavior by rendering some individuals more susceptible to the influences of delinquent peers. Implications for criminological theory are discussed.
 

Article 3. A Promising Approach to Narrowing the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The WISE Arrest Diversion Program                           

Abstract: Recent dramatic increases in the number of youth arrested for nonserious behavior in schools have led some jurisdictions to search for solutions to the “school-to-prison pipeline.” In this article, we evaluate the WISE arrest diversion program in Utica, New York. We use a mixed-methods evaluation design including: (1) a pre–post program comparison of school conduct by participants, (2) a pre–post program comparison of school-based arrests at Upstate High School, (3) a multivariate analysis that estimates the influence of the WISE program on school-based arrests while controlling for citywide juvenile arrests and the passage of time, and (4) interviews conducted with students, program staff, and stakeholders. Although the program appeared more successful in reducing Upstate High School’s reliance on arrest than in improving school conduct among participants, results suggest that the WISE arrest diversion program contains promising elements and lessons for narrowing the school-to-prison pipeline.
 

Article 4. From Bullied to Deviant: The Victim–Offender Overlap Among Bullying Victims                           

Abstract: Although much research has explored bullies and bullying victims, little has been done to explore the long-term effects on those who have been bullied. Separately, a growing body of evidence suggests that there is a victim–offender overlap, in which many victims are or become offenders themselves. Taken together, this suggests that bullying victims may themselves be at elevated risk of involvement in deviance or crime. The present study uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to explore this issue, utilizing propensity score matching to control for the shared predictors of offending and victimization. Given that bullying experiences can vary dramatically by gender, gender-specific analyses are performed. Results indicate that controlling for the propensity to be bullied reduces, but does not eliminate, the effect on later criminality.