This chapter focuses on the links between cultural and linguistic diversity and exceptionality. It begins with a discussion of the increasing diversity in our nation and our students but the lack of diversity in educators and other school professionals. The chapter then provides the students with important vocabulary words for describing and understanding cultural and linguistic diversity. Multicultural education and bilingual education are differentiated and their place in the education of diverse students is discussed.

The chapter also discusses the disproportional representation of diverse students in special education programs. Statistics are presented about disproportional representation and factors responsible for the over- and under-representation of different groups in different exceptionality categories are discussed as are the consequences of disproportional representation. Finally, the difficulties of reliably and validly assessing the skills and needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students are discussed. The nondiscriminatory testing and evaluation component of IDEA is discussed as well as assessment innovations, strategies, and recommendations that should improve the reliability and validity of assessments with diverse students. Classroom strategies for working with culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities are also presented. 

Learning Objectives:

• Explain how cultural and linguistic diversity is affecting U.S. classrooms.
• Define culture, multiculturalism, multicultural education, and bilingual education.
• List six instructional options for teaching students who are bilingual.
• Outline the issues associated with the disproportional representation of culturally and linguistically diverse learners in special education.
• Describe the challenges confronting educators when assessing students from culturally and linguistically diverse groups.

Lecture Outline:

1. Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation
   
   1. Culture
      
      1. The attitudes, values, belief systems, norms, and traditions shared by a particular group of people that can be reflected in their language, religion, dress, diet, and social customs.
   2. Multiculturalism
      
      1. Acknowledgement and acceptance of many different cultures that have equal value. Individuals can function in more than one culture.
   3. Multicultural education
      
      1. Education that is infused throughout the curriculum and values the customs, race, language, and ideas of all cultures including cultural constructs such as race, gender, and disability.
   4. Bilingual education
      
      1. An educational strategy for students whose first language is not English where they receive instruction in their native language while learning English.
   5. Macroculture
      
      1. Core national culture which represents a shared culture such as American individualism and independence.
   6. Microculture
      
      1. Distinct subcultures within the larger culture that retain their own unique characteristics.
   7. English Learners
      
      1. Individuals whose primary or home language is not English and who are not yet proficient in English so they cannot fully profit from instruction provided in English.
   8. The Federal Government only recognizes seven distinct racial groups:
      
      1. American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, Hispanic, Black, White, Two or more races.
      2. Any categorization of racial background will be somewhat inaccurate due to the many variations and commonalities within groups.
2. Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education, and Student Diversity
   
   1. Bilingual Special Education Considerations
      
      1. Instructional and program options
   2. Over-representation of minority students receiving special education services/Under-representation of minority students in gifted and talented programs
      
      1. Relationship between family socioeconomic status (poverty)
         1. Minorities groups often live in urban areas that are associated with poverty and may have poor nutrition, adverse living conditions, and limited access to prenatal and healthcare. Numerous reports have shown the negative influence of poverty on educational achievement.
      2. Identification procedures
         1. Faulty identification procedures, ineffective prereferral strategies, test bias, and inappropriate assessment techniques may also account for some of the overrepresentation.
      3. Instructional methodology
         1. Research demonstrates that children from minority groups may learn differently than White youngsters and teachers may not employ strategies that meet the learning styles of all of their students.
   3. Consequences of a disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs
      
      1. May result in an inferior and less effective educational experience
         1. Students who are removed from the general education classroom and curriculum may experience inferior educational opportunities due to limited expectations, supplies, instructional materials, and resources.
      2. Increases risk for underachievement and school dropout
         1. Minority students historically have higher rates of school dropout than their White classmates.
      3. May create limited employment opportunities
         1. Adults who did not complete high school are more likely to be unemployed or incarcerated.
3. Assessment of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with Disabilities
   
   1. Numerous attempts have been made to limit bias in assessment tools and procedures.
      
      1. Test revisions
         1. Tests were renormed, or restandardized, to reflect the diversity of today’s American schools. An example includes the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) II which was redesigned in 2004.
      2. Multiple Intelligences
         1. Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) suggested a broader view of intelligence that looks at characteristics that are not traditionally assessed on standard IQ tests. Gardner proposed eight different, though related intelligences: verbal/linguistic, musical/rhythmic, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
      3. Portfolio assessments
         1. Portfolio assessments are considered authentic, performance-based assessment strategies that demonstrate an individual’s growth over time rather than comparing the progress to a set of norms.
4. Classroom Suggestions for Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with Disabilities
   
   1. Assess a child in both English and in the native language before administering other tests so that a child’s abilities in the native language can be determined. A student may have an English language barrier but understand the content in the native language.
   2. A student must exhibit a disability when evaluated in the native language or the student does not have a disability.
   3. Schools should use multiple assessment tools and procedures including a combination of formal and informal measures that are collected from the child, teacher(s), and the parents.
   4. Evaluators should use tools and techniques that are as unbiased as possible to obtain accurate results.
   5. An interpreter may be used if bilingual education is not available and the interpreter has experience in assessment terminology and principles.
   6. Parents should be involved in developing assessments that will yield meaningful results.
   7. Display sensitivity to the cultural heritage of all students through the use of appropriate materials and instructional practices and through critical consideration of the curriculum. Teachers’ attitudes impact the perceptions and beliefs of students.
   8. Use instructional strategies and materials that respect different learning styles in order to meet the needs of all students in the classroom and help them to achieve academic success.
   9. Consider the instructional environment and the impact on student behavior. Students come to school with a variety of experiences that influence how they respond to school situations. Varying cultural expectations may influence students’ behavior within the classroom.
   10. The instructional materials that teachers use in the classroom communicate cultural values to students through the pictures, examples, language, and attitudes they experience within them. Critical consideration and selection of instructional materials can help to promote positive attitudes regarding diversity among students. It is also valuable for all students to learn to critically evaluate diversity issues within the curriculum and within their own lives