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Article 1: Renauer, B. (2012). Neighborhood variation in police stops and searches: A test of consensus and conflict perspectives. Police Quarterly, 15(3), 219–240. 

This study examines consensus and conflict approaches to explaining police stop and search rates in 94 neighborhoods. Police deployment, racial threat, race-out-of-place, and social conditioning perspectives were analyzed. Models were based on 206,083 stops and 38,493 searches controlling for racial/ethnic makeup, citizen calls for service, disadvantage, prior violent crime suspect rates, time of day, and spatial autocorrelation. The results supported both police deployment and race-out-of-place arguments. Policy implications focus on the need for police and community to fully understand and mutually agree on the relevance of both consensus and conflict perspectives.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How did the author test his hypothesis?
2. What were the author’s results concerning stop and searches?
3. What policy implications result from these findings?
    

Article 2: Pakes, P. (2010). The comparative method in globalised criminology. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 43(1), 17–30.

Traditional comparative criminology has predominantly focused on the comparison of isolated and self-contained cultures and arrangements. However, globalisation has altered states of isolation and self-containment to produce spheres of interrelation. That provides a challenge to the comparative method. This article will argue that comparative criminology needs to come to terms with novel objects in new conceptual and organisational layers, both above the state and below the city. Such enquiry requires agility. Rather than identifying and crossing new frontiers, globalised comparative criminology should concern itself with the complex interplay between global, national, city and subcity levels. This approach is illustrated by an examination of contrasts in community safety between the rival Dutch cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the central issue communicated by the author?
2. Does the author provide sufficient support for his claim? Explain.
3. What recommendations does the author make to address the issue?
    

Article 3: Hinton, W. J., Sims, P. L., Adams, M.A., & West, C. (2007). Juvenile justice: A system divided. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 18(4), 466–483.

An increasing public focus on the effects of juvenile crime on society has dramatically impacted juvenile justice policy decisions in recent years. Historically, juvenile justice policy makers have attempted to address juvenile crime by promoting policies that address the rehabilitative needs of the offender. However, throughout the last 20 years of the 20th century, policy makers have advocated more punitive offense-based policies to address juvenile crime. This article examines the differences between these two approaches and the implications associated with the continued emergence of a more offense-based approach compared to the offender-based approach, which historically has been the foundation of the American juvenile justice system. The authors hope to stimulate discussion among stakeholders in the juvenile justice system to promote sound policy decisions based on scientific evidence.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Identify two significant factors in the evolution of the juvenile justice system from each of the three eras discussed.
2. According to the authors, what is the current status of juvenile justice research?
3. What conclusion is drawn by the authors?

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Article 1: Lynch, J., & Jarvis, J. (2008). Missing data and imputation in the Uniform Crime Reports and the effects on national estimates. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 24(1), 69–85. Retrieved from

The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program has been a major source of data on crime since 1929. These data were long considered authoritative, but lately, questions have arisen about their accuracy. Maltz has documented the magnitude of missing data in the series and demonstrated their import for research on policy issues. Maltz’s work focuses on agency-level estimates for specific months, but the UCR program was never meant to provide estimates for this unit or time period. So, although Maltz’s work is important, it has not addressed the consequences of missing data for the principal purpose of the UCR program—providing annual national estimates of the level and change in crimes known to the police. This article complements Maltz’s work by assessing the magnitude and distribution of missing data nationally and their effect on national-level and change estimates. It also examines the effects of the FBI’s imputation practices on these estimates

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the overall research question of the paper?
2. What do the authors say about Maltz’s work?
3. What is the magnitude of missing data in the UCR?
    

Article 2: Huff-Corzine, L., McCutcheon, J., Corzine, J., Jarvis, J., Tetzlaff-Bemiller M., & Landon, M. (2014). Shooting for accuracy: Comparing data sources on mass murder. Homicide Studies 18(1), 105–124. Retrieved from

Although researchers have questioned their coverage and accuracy, the media routinely are used as sources of data on mass murder in the United States. Databases compiled from media sources such as newspaper and network news programs include the New York Police Department’s Active Shooters file, the Brady Campaign Mass Casualty Shootings data set, and the Mother Jones database. Conversely, official crime data have been underutilized by researchers who study mass murder (for exceptions, see Duwe, 2007; Fox & Levin, 1998). In this study, we compare similarities and differences for mass murder cases in the United States as portrayed by selected mass media sources. Then, we turn our focus to a comparison of the Uniform Crime Reports’ (UCR) Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR) and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). Our primary focus is on mass murders involving four or more fatalities—not including the perpetrator—that have occurred between 2001 and 2010. Implications for enhancing the comprehensiveness and quality of mass murder data with the goal of increasing their usefulness for guiding prevention and risk mitigation efforts also are discussed.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the purpose of the article?
2. Identify and explain two of the significant findings from this study.
3. What are some of the limitations of the study?
    

Article 3: Koper, C. (2014). Assessing the practice of hot spots policing: Surveying results from a national convenience sample of local police agencies. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(2), 123–146. Retrieved from

This study examined the practice of hot spots policing as reported by a convenience sample of predominantly large municipal police agencies. Police commonly defined hot spots in terms of micro places as well as larger areas, and they emphasized short-term identification and responses to hot spots. Respondents identified problem analysis/solving, targeting offenders, and directed patrol as the most common and effective strategies for hot spots, but there was wide variation in their views of the most effective strategies for different types of hot spots. Current practices could arguably be improved through more a precise geographic focus, a greater emphasis on chronic hot spots and their criminogenic features, and further research to determine optimal strategies, dosages, and proactive uses of hot spots policing.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How was the data collected for this study?
2. What does the study conclude about “hot spots policing”?
3. Identify at least two limitations of this study.

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Article 1: Bowers, W., & Pierce, G. (1980). Deterrence or brutalization: What is the effect of executions? Crime & Delinquency, 26(4), 453–484. Retrieved from

In this study, we find that in New York State over the period 1907–63 there were, on the average, two additional homicides in the month after an execution. Controls for time trends, seasonality, the effects of war, and adjustments for autocorrelation tend to confirm this finding. Such a “brutalizing” effect of executions is consistent with research on violent events such as publicized suicides, mass murders, and assassinations; with previous studies of the long-term effects of the availability and use of capital punishment; and with a small number of investigations of the short-term impact of executions in the days, weeks, and months that follow. This suggests that the message of executions is one of “lethal vengeance” more than deterrence. The resulting sacrifice of human life challenges the constitutionality of capital punishment.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What did the authors control for in the study? Why?
2. What where their results?
3. What is the message of execution according to the authors?
    

Article 2: Jacobs, B., & Piquero, A. (2012). Boundary-crossing in perceptual deterrence: Investigating the linkages between sanction severity, sanction certainty, and offending. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 57(7), 792–812. Retrieved from

Severe punishments have historically been the bedrock of criminal deterrence, but criminologists have long documented that such threats are often ineffective. Instead, it has been the certainty of sanctions that has been most emphasized and that has garnered empirical support. In a departure from prior research, the question motivating this study is whether increases in the threatened severity of sanction threats alter the perceived certainty of detection irrespective of any objective changes in detection certainty, and then how such perceptions relate to offending. To the authors’ knowledge, scant attention has been paid to examining the possibility of this “boundary-crossing,” or the extent to which two core dimensions of deterrence, objective and perceptual certainty, cross, intersect, or interact with one another. Using data from a sample of young adults, the authors find mixed support for “boundary-crossing”: Although combinations of objective certainty and severity did not necessarily result in substantive differences in perceptions of certainty and severity, an individual’s own perceived certainty and severity related to offending differently depending on the information provided to them about the objective certainty and severity of punishment

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How did the authors test their hypotheses?
2. What did the authors find regarding the linkages between sanction severity, sanction certainty, and offending?
3. The authors state that boundary crossing may “call into question aspects of the phenomenon of discounting.” Explain this.
    

Article 3: Ferrajoli, L. (2014). Two hundred and fifty years since the publication of On Crimes and Punishments: The currency of Cesare Beccaria’s thought. Punishment & Society, 16(5), 501–519. Retrieved from

This essay highlights three aspects of the extraordinarily current relevance of Cesare Beccaria’s On Crimes and Punishments in the 250th year since its publication. The first aspect concerns criminal law, which Beccaria founded anew as a system of individual safeguards against the arbitrariness and excess of punishment—a normative model still largely to be realized today. The second aspect consists in the constituent character of Beccaria’s thought. Together with other Enlightenment thinkers, he paved the way for the political doctrine of limited public powers—the doctrine that would usher in, well beyond the boundaries of criminal law, the contemporary and still largely unaccomplished constitutionalism of legal safeguards and fundamental human rights. The third aspect of Beccaria’s relevance consists in the critical and propositional role he assigned to philosophical reflection vis-a-vis positive law, on the ground of its axiological foundations and a militant defence of the values inherent in the legal artifice.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Identify the three aspects of the current relevance of Beccaria’s On Crimes and Punishments.
2. What makes each of the three aspects continue to be current?

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Article 1: Stafford, M., & Warr, M. (1993). A reconceptualization of general and specific deterrence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(2), 123–135. Retrieved from

The distinction between general and specific deterrence is widely recognized and accepted by deterrence researchers, and is used commonly to classify deterrence studies. However, the logical and empirical grounds for the distinction are not as clear as they might appear, and the conventional conception has done more to obfuscate than to clarify the deterrence process. Following a discussion of these issues, the authors propose a reconceptualization of general and specific deterrence, and apply it to several current controversies in the deterrence literature.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the difference between general and specific deterrence?
2. What are some of the issues concerning this distinction?
3. What is the reconceptualization the authors discuss?
    

Article 2: Beauregard, E., Leclerc, B., & Lussier, P. (2012). Decision making in the crime commission process: Comparing rapists, child molesters, and victim-crossover sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(10), 1275–1295. Retrieved from

Based on a rational choice approach, this study compares the decision making involved in the crime commission process of rapists (n = 30), child molesters (n = 17), and victim-crossover sex offenders (n = 22). Using a mixed-methods framework and following Clarke and Cornish’s decision-making model, the authors organized offenders’ narratives collected during semistructured interviews into three major areas: (a) offense planning (i.e., premeditation of the crime, estimation of risk of apprehension by the offender, and forensic awareness of the offender); (b) offense strategies (i.e., use of a weapon, use of restraints, use of a vehicle, and level of force used; and (c) aftermath (i.e., event leading to the end of crime and victim release site location choice). Results emphasize the important role of situational factors and age of the victim on the decision-making process of serial sex offenders. Moreover, results show that because of particular choice-structuring properties, the decision making varies across different groups of serial sex offenders.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. For this study, the authors classified the offenders’ narratives into three major areas, or in this case, three phases of the crime commission process. Why is it important to identify differences in decision making during each of these three phases?
2. What is the main hypothesis of the study? Did the findings support the hypothesis?
3. What policy implications do the authors offer?
    

Article 3: McNeeley, S. (2015). Lifestyle-routine activities and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1), 30–52. Retrieved from

This article presents a review of the theoretical and empirical status of lifestyle-routine activities theory, along with a discussion of its utility for policy and practice. The article covers multiple theoretical applications of the theory at different levels of analysis, along with an overview of the empirical status of the theory for each of these applications. Particular focus is given to the lifestyle-routine activities explanations of individual victimization and offending, and the research on crime and place. Then, policy implications and existing practices based on the theory are presented. Finally, it is suggested that scholars and practitioners begin to focus on (a) the interaction of lifestyle with other factors, such as gender or delinquent values; (b) virtual places and online routine activities; and (c) the use of convergent settings to facilitate co-offending.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Based on the article, what is the empirical status of lifestyle-routine activities theory at each of the levels of analysis?
2. What suggestions does the author make for future research?

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Article 1: Urbaniok, F., Laubacher, A., Hardegger, J., Rossegger, A., Endrass, J., & Moskvitin, J. (2012). Neurobiological determinism: Human freedom of choice and criminal responsibility. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 56(2), 174–190. Retrieved from

Several authors have argued that criminal behavior is generally caused by neurobiological deficits. This assumption not only questions the concept of free will and a person’s responsibility for his or her own actions but also the principle of guilt in criminal law. When critically examining the current state of research, it becomes apparent that the results are not sufficient to support the existence of a universally valid neurobiological causality of criminal behavior. Moreover, the assumption of total neurobiological determination of human behavior and the impossibility of individual responsibility are characterized by both faulty empiricism and methodical misconceptions. The principle of relative determinism and the analysis of the offender’s behavior at the time of the offense thus remain the central and cogent approach to the assessment of criminal responsibility

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Identify the basic research question as stated by the authors.
2. What do the authors postulate as the cause of criminal behavior?
3. What do they believe past research has left out?
    

Article 2: Blanchard, R., Kolla, N., Cantor, J., Klassen, P., Dickey, R., Kuban, M., & Blak, T. (2007). IQ, handedness, and pedophilia in adult male patients stratified by referral source. Sex Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19(3), 285–309. Retrieved from

This study investigated whether the previously observed association of pedophilia with lower IQs is an artifact of heterogeneity in referral source. The subjects were 832 adult male patients referred to a specialty clinic for evaluation of their sexual behavior. The patients’ erotic preferences for prepubescent, pubescent, or adult partners were assessed with phallometric testing. Full scale IQ was estimated using six subtests from the WAIS-R. The results showed that the relations between pedophilia and lower IQ, lesser education, and increased rates of non-righthandedness were the same in homogeneous groups referred by lawyers or parole and probation officers as they were in a heterogeneous group referred by a miscellany of other sources. Those results, along with secondary analyses in the study, supported the conclusion that the relation between pedophilia and cognitive function is genuine and not artifactual. The findings were interpreted as evidence for the hypothesis that neurodevelopmental perturbations increase the risk of pedophilia in males.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Who were the subjects of this study?
2. What were the authors trying to link IQ scores to?
3. What were the results of the study?

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Article 1: Beaver, K. (2013). The familial concentration and transmission of crime. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 40(2), 139–155. Retrieved from

Research has revealed that crime tends to concentrate in families and that it also tends to be transmitted across generational lines. The current study expanded on this line of research by examining the familial concentration and transmission of crime in a sample of sibling pairs. Analysis of data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) revealed that 5% of all families accounted for more than 50% of all criminal arrests. Additional analyses revealed between-sibling similarity and intergenerational transmission in being arrested, being sentenced to probation, being incarcerated, and being arrested multiple times. Structural equation models (SEMs) were also estimated to examine the mechanisms that might account for the familial concentration and transmission of crime. These SEMs provided evidence indicating that the concentration and transmission of crime was due, in part, to genetic factors as well as mating patterns.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What does the author identify as a “major drawback” of the previous studies on sibling similarity and criminal/antisocial behavior?
2. Overall, do you think this study advanced the understanding of the transmission of crime? Explain.
    

Article 2: Gesch, B. (2013). Adolescence: Does good nutrition = good behaviour? Nutrition and Health, 22(1), 55–65. Retrieved from

Adolescence is often associated with exploring boundaries, rapid growth, hormones and pimples. A stable feature of this turbulent age is that these young people are highly overrepresented in the criminal justice system. Adolescents account for disproportionate proportion of police-recorded crimes, and this seems to be a cross-cultural phenomenon. Furthermore, disaffected young people often have limited routine access to healthy foods and make poor food choices. These people form a large proportion of the prison population and there are concerns that insufficient attention is paid to their health. Hence their diet tends to be poor compared with international standards of dietary adequacy, which typically are set to protect the heart but not for optimal brain function. Thus, it has been posited that a poor diet may be a modifiable causal factor in antisocial behaviours. We tested what happened to the behaviour of violent young adult prisoners (18–21years) when nutrients missing from their diets were reinstated. We used food supplements as an analogue of a better diet because it provided the possibility of a placebo control. On a random basis, where neither the volunteers, prison staff nor researchers in the prison knew who was getting which type, 231 volunteers were given either placebo or real capsules containing broadly the daily requirements of vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids. The number of proven offences committed by each prisoner was monitored before and while taking supplements. The result was that those who received the extra nutrients committed significantly (26.3%) fewer offences compared with placebos. Those consuming real supplements for at least 2 weeks committed 37% fewer (highly statistically significant) of the most serious offences, such as violence. These findings have been replicated by the Dutch Ministry of Justice; their double-blind study reported a 48% difference between groups. If these studies are widely replicated—and they need to be—we may have a simple and humane means to help reduce and prevent a significant proportion of violence and antisocial behaviour. This should also work in the community, because it is not about where you eat but what you eat. Indeed, criminal justice systems are often over-represented with ethnic minorities, but providing a more nutritious diet is never going to be discriminatory to these young people. The only risk is better health.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the purpose of this article?
2. What policy implications might come from this information? 

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Article 1: Caruso, J., Witkiewitz, K., Belcourt-Dittloff, A., & Gottlieb, J. (2001). Reliability of scores from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire: A reliability generalization study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61(4), 675–689. Retrieved from

A reliability generalization study was conducted on data from 69 samples found in 44 studies that employed the Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N), and Lie (L) scales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) or EPQ-Revised. The reliability of the scores varied considerably between scales, with P scores tending to have the lowest reliability. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that a larger standard deviation of scores was associated with higher score reliability for all four EPQ scales. More variability in age was associated with higher score reliability for the P scale and the L scale. Samples composed of students provided scores with higher reliability than those composed of other types of individuals for the P scale. Several other potential predictors (form, language of administration, average score, average age, gender composition, and number of items per scale) were not significantly related to score reliability

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How did the authors go about answering their research question?
2. What predictors were used to test the research question?
3. Is the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire reliable?
    

Article 2: Myers, W., & Vo, E. (2012). Adolescent parricide and psychopathy. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 56(5), 715–729. Retrieved from

Most cases of juvenile parricide are believed to be the result of child abuse, yet the vast majority of abused children do not kill their parental abusers. This study explored the role of psychopathy in 10 adolescent parricide offenders tried in adult court who were referred for pretrial psychiatric evaluation. In addition, psychopathological findings, crime-related behaviors, and judicial outcomes are described. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders diagnoses, most commonly posttraumatic stress disorder, and chronic, severe child abuse were prevalent. Psychopathic traits were not found to have played a role in the traumatized youths’ parricidal behavior. Killings occurred in the family homes, usually through a surprise attack with parent-owned firearms. There was an average of 1.7 victims per event, with fathers being the most likely victim. Bodies were commonly covered or wrapped and moved postmortem. Confessions were often incredible in quality. One half received sentences of 40+ years, and the modal sanction was a life sentence, despite 90% premorbidly described as good youth. Further studies of adolescent parricide are needed to better understand this unusual population.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Describe the sample used in this study.
2. What is the hypothesis of this study?
3. Do the findings support the authors’ hypothesis? Explain.
    

Article 3: Lurigio, A. (2011). People with serious mental illness in the criminal justice system: Causes, consequences, and correctives. The Prison Journal, 9(3). 66S-86S. Retrieved from

This article examines the rising number of people with serious mental illness (PSMI) in the criminal justice system and suggests remedies for improving care and services for this troubled population. Of note, mental illness is not the primary cause of criminal behavior nor is deinstitutionalization principally responsible for the disproportionate criminal justice system representation of PSMI. Rather, harsh crime control policies and draconian drug laws, in particular, account for the apparently large numbers of PSMI who are arrested and incarcerated. Recommendations are offered for service providers to focus on the amelioration of criminogenic factors, not simply on treating mental illness among PSMI in the criminal justice system. Furthermore, larger investments should be made in treating co-occurring disorders and funding aftercare services, which are essential to maintaining treatment gains and sustaining recovery

Questions that apply to this article:

1. According to the author, what part did/does deinstitutionalization play in the disproportionate representation of those with serious mental illnesses in the criminal justice system?
2. What attempts have been made to deal with the high number of PSMI in the criminal justice system?
3. One of the recommendations the author proposes to deal with the number of PSMI in the criminal justice system is to end the criminalization of PSMI. Explain how this could lead to lower numbers of PSMI in the criminal justice system.

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Article 1: Murphy, D., & Robinson, M. (2008). The maximizer: Clarifying Merton's theories of anomie and strain. Theoretical Criminology, 12(4), 501–521. Retrieved from

Robert Merton’s (1957) theories of anomie and strain are among the most widely examined theories of criminality. Messner and Rosenfeld’s (1994) theory of institutional anomie built on Merton’s conception of anomie, delineating how specific institutions lead to conditions of anomie and criminality. Cloward and Ohlin’s (1961) theory of differential opportunity built upon Merton’s strain theory, underscoring the fact that those involved in illegitimate means of opportunity require a set of learned skills as do those involved in legitimate means. In this tradition, the present paper further expands Merton’s theories of anomie and strain, suggesting that Merton’s categories of conformist and innovator are not mutually exclusive. In fact, some individuals combine both legitimate and illegitimate means of opportunity in pursuit of the American Dream. The Maximizer, the authors suggest, merges elements of both the conformist and the innovator (i.e., legitimate and illegitimate means). The present paper explores the justification for merging legitimate and illegitimate means of opportunity in pursuit of the American Dream.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is institutional anomie?
2. What is special about Merton’s conformist and innovator categories?
3. What is the Maximizer? What does it do?
    

Article 2: Ngo, F., & Paternoster, R. (2016). Toward an understanding of the emotional and behavioral reactions to stalking: A partial test of general strain theory. Crime & Delinquency, 62(6), 703–727. Retrieved from

Using data from the Supplemental Victimization Survey and relying on theoretical direction provided by Agnew’s general strain theory, we examine whether specific types of stalking experiences trigger specific types of negative emotional states and whether specific negative emotional states are in turn associated with specific types of noncriminal coping mechanisms. We find that while several of the stalking experiences trigger a variety of negative emotional states, other stalking experiences do not exhibit any association with negative emotions. We also uncover that negative emotional states in response to strain can trigger legitimate coping mechanisms. One notable finding that emerged from our results is that feeling annoyed/angry is significantly associated with noncriminal coping strategies. The policy implications of our findings are also discussed.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What are the two hypotheses of the study?
2. How was the sample selected?
3. Do the findings support either or both of the hypotheses?

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Article 1: Jorgensen, A. (2010). The sense of belonging in new urban zones of transition. Current Sociology, 58(1), 3–23. Retrieved from

In most modern sociological literature, it is a rarity to find analyses suggesting that social bonds and the sense of belonging can be strong in socially deprived areas. In the classic Chicago tradition of sociology, in the works of Park et al. and in Louis Wirth’s The Ghetto, residential areas are described both as places in which the social bonds are loose and places with strong bonds. However, a focal point in this article is that the sense of place and belonging are related to the type and the quality of local social bonds. The article discusses the sense of belonging in socially deprived areas by using and adapting classic concepts and insights of human ecology as formulated by the classical Chicago sociologists Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess. Recent sociological contributions about belonging and the sense of place, including recent empirical studies on the topic, are also addressed. It is argued that two socially deprived neighbourhoods with identical social profiles measured by traditional sociological variables as average income, educational level, unemployment, ethnicity, welfare benefits, etc., can be very different when it comes to local community and local social networks.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What argument is the author making in this article?
2. What conclusion does the author come to regarding the “zone of transition”?
    

Article 2: Fagan, A., & Wright, E. (2012). The effects of neighborhood context on youth violence and delinquency: Does gender matter? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10(1), 64–82. Retrieved from

This study examined the effects of neighborhood structural and social characteristics on offending among girls and boys aged 8 to 17 residing in 80 Chicago neighborhoods. The results demonstrated gender differences in contextual effects, although not in ways predicted by social disorganization theory. Collective efficacy and concentrated disadvantage were not significantly associated with self-reported offending among males. Among females, collective efficacy was related to higher rates of general delinquency and violence, while disadvantage reduced the likelihood of self-reported violence. These outcomes suggest that neighborhoods may impact individual offending in complex ways and highlight the importance of considering gender when researching contextual effects on youth offending.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How does this study attempt to extend social disorganization theory?
2. How are the findings in this study inconsistent with findings from previous empirical studies?

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Article 1: Church, W. II, Wharton, T., & Taylor, J. (2009). An examination of differential association and social control theory: Family systems and delinquency. Youth Violence, 7(1), 3–15. Retrieved from

This study applies differential association and social control theories to juvenile delinquency. Using a path analysis model, relationships between family, self-image, and behavior are explored. Analyses suggest that positive self-image leads to decreased delinquency, and association with delinquent peers is the greatest predictor of delinquent behavior, regardless of race.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What three factors are investigated by the authors concerning delinquency?
2. What can a positive self-image do?
3. What is the greatest predictor of delinquent behavior?
    

Article 2: Spraitz, J., & Bowen, K. (2016). Techniques of neutralization and persistent sexual abuse by clergy: A content analysis of priest personnel files from the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, (31)15, 2515–2538. Retrieved from

The sexual abuse problem in the Catholic Church has received considerable attention by the media in recent years and growing attention from empirical researchers. Despite this growth, there is a lack of theoretical research that uses neutralization techniques to examine clergy offending. Using Sykes and Matza’s theory, this study examines the techniques of neutralization used by accused priests in the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. Priests’ personnel files, which were made publicly available by the Archbishop of Milwaukee in July 2013, were analyzed retrospectively through a qualitative content analysis of all direct statements and correspondences from the accused. The findings indicate that many priests denied responsibility or injury in an effort to justify their sexually abusive behaviors, but that no discernible patterns of technique use emerged. The need for continued research using recently released personnel files from other dioceses is also discussed.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the purpose of this study?
2. What was the most-used technique of neutralization used by the sample?
3. What recommendations do the authors have for extending this research?
    

Article 3: Zhang, Y., Day, G., & Cao, L. (2012). A partial test of Agnew’s general theory of crime and delinquency. Crime & Delinquency, 58(6), 856–878. Retrieved from

In 2005, Agnew introduced a new integrated theory, which he labels a general theory of crime and delinquency. He proposes that delinquency is more likely to occur when constraints against delinquency are low and motivations for delinquency are high. In addition, he argues that constraints and motivations are influenced by variables in five life domains. Capitalizing on longitudinal data of Paternoster’s Youths and Deterrence: Columbia, South Carolina, 1979–1981, a structural equation model is developed to test Agnew’s theory. Data limitations preclude a full test of the theory, but the results support the core proposition of the theory: Life domains increase delinquency by reducing constraints against delinquency and by increasing motivations for delinquency. Other propositions of Agnew’s theory garner mixed results.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Which proposition of Agnew’s general strain theory does this study attempt to test?
2. Are the authors able to establish causal order of delinquency?
3. What is a limitation of the study?

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Article 1: Kavish, D. R., Mullins, C. W., & Soto, D. A. (2016). Interactionist labeling: Formal and informal labeling’s effects on juvenile delinquency. Crime & Delinquency, 62(10), 1313–1336. Retrieved from

This article critically reviews prior labeling theory research concerning juvenile delinquency and crime, and proposes a new study using a recent data set. The labeling perspective is outlined as it was originally presented, and the theoretical elaborations that have taken place since are highlighted. Distinctions are made between formally applied criminal justice labels and the informal labels that are applied by educational institutions, significant others, and parental figures. An interactionist labeling model is presented to explain levels of juvenile delinquency among a nationally representative sample of American adolescents: the first three waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Finally, negative binomial regression models are estimated to better explain the dynamic relationship between labels and delinquency. Consistent with labeling theory, formal labeling significantly increased future delinquency.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How do the authors distinguish between formal and informal labels?
2. Which of the four hypotheses was rejected? Why?
3. What does this study contribute to the body of literature on labeling theory?
    

Article 2: Sims, B. (1997). Crime, punishment, and the American dream: Toward a Marxist integration. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34(1), 5–24. Retrieved from

In their book Crime and the American Dream, Messner and Rosenfeld suggest that the American economy sets up a society conducive to conflict and crime. The authors argue throughout their work that social, educational, and political institutions take a backseat to the economy. When building the theoretical foundation for their argument, Messner and Rosenfeld fail to adequately address the contribution of Marxist criminology to their “sociological paradigm.” In the present article, the author attempts to supply that missing link by suggesting that Marxist criminology can explain how social and economic inequalities are a naturally occurring event in the American system of capitalism. Having done so, she then examines how the theoretical foundation constructed in the first part of the article could be applied to address the manner in which punishment is meted out in American society.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What did Messner and Rosenfeld say about the American economy?
2. What did Sims say Messner and Rosenfeld left out in their earlier work? What is that missing link?
3. How can the theory discussed by Sims be applied to punishment in America?
    

Article 3: Kort-Butler, L. A. (2012). Justice league? Depictions of justice in children’s superhero cartoons. Criminal Justice Review, 38(1), 50–69. Retrieved from

The literature argues that media depictions of criminal justice present messages that conform to and promote the dominant ideology about the crime problem and how to solve it. Research has focused on television news and adult programs, but little research has examined messages about justice present in children’s shows. To fill this gap, an ethnographic content analysis of children’s cartoons was conducted, using a sample of episodes from Batman: The Animated Series, Spider-Man, and Justice League Unlimited. Several themes emerged. First, the justice system is often depicted as ill equipped to handle serious crime. Second, story lines suggested that the justice system is relatively weak, plagued by corruption or ineffectiveness. Third, heroes are driven by their notions of justice, recognizing that only they can stop the worst criminals and are morally obligated to do so. Fourth, heroes are willing to use force to capture offenders, but they also use brain power. Finally, although heroes work largely outside the law, they are supportive of the efforts of honest justice system actors. In sum, these shows provide messages about justice that are consistent with and supportive of the dominant ideology that derides rehabilitation and emphasizes incapacitation. They are also congruent with messages, images, and frames presented in adult-oriented media. By drawing on moral elements and the problem frame, they act as cultural primers by which young people may interpret subsequent imagery of crime and justice. The consistency across genres contributes to the social reality of crime and control.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What “gap” in the media depictions of criminal justice literature is this study attempting to fill?
2. What are the four themes identified by the author?
3. What is the overall conclusion drawn by the author from her research (as it relates to the social reality of crime control)?

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Article 1: Hirsch, B., Roffman, J., Deutsch, N., Flynn, C., Loder, T., & Pagano, M. (2000). Inner-city youth development organizations: Strengthening programs for adolescent girls. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 20(2), 210–230. Retrieved from

The challenges of early adolescence are intensified for girls of color who live in disadvantaged urban communities. One response to the needs of these girls comes from the Boys & Girls Clubs of America (BGCA), a youth development organization that has a long-standing presence in inner-city neighborhoods. A gender equity initiative designed to strengthen programming for minority girls at a BGCA affiliate in a major urban center was examined. Drawing on initial qualitative findings, a conceptual framework is presented for understanding the ways in which the clubs can affect urban early adolescent girls’ self-esteem. Several strategic choices confronting this initiative then are considered. The authors emphasize the creation of a “home place” that enables the development of self via organizational responsiveness to girls’ voices, strong bonds between girls and staff, adaptive peer friendship cliques, and the development of programs that fuse the interests of girls and adult staff.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the Boys and Girls Club of America? What does it do?
2. How can these clubs affect girls in lower income areas?
3. What is a home place and why is it important?
    

Article 2: Kim, B., Gerber, J., Henderson, C., & Kim, Y. (2012). Applicability of general power-control theory to prosocial and antisocial risk-taking behaviors among women in South Korea. The Prison Journal, 92(1), 125–150. Retrieved from

Grasmick and colleagues expanded general power-control theory to include both pro- and antisocial risky behaviors more than 10 years ago; however, to date, there have been no empirical tests of their theoretical modifications. The current study tested the comprehensive model of general power-control theory using three different samples from South Korea: women who enter traditionally male-dominated occupations, female prison inmates, and women incarcerated for intimate partner killing. Results related to women’s patriarchal attitudes and preference for general risks supported our expectations and confirmed the tenets of general power-control theory that focus on both pro- and antisocial risky behaviors. In addition, the ones related to patriarchy of the family of origin supported Hagan’s original power-control theory focusing on only antisocial risky behaviors.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How were the samples selected for this study?
2. Do the findings support general power-control theory?
3. What is suggested for testing general power-control theory in future studies on Korean women?

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Article 1: Siepel, C., & Eifler, S. (2010). Opportunities, rational choice, and self-control: On the interaction of person and situation in a general theory of crime. Crime & Delinquency, 56 (2), 167–197. Retrieved from

In this article, deviant action is analyzed on the basis of ideas derived from Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory. Presumedly, self-control in interaction with opportunities can explain deviant action. This assumption is elaborated using the concept of high- and low-cost situations from rational choice theory. From this point of view, the hypotheses are that self-control predicts deviant action in low-cost situations, whereas utility predicts deviant action in high-cost situations. Two test strategies are employed in an empirical examination of these hypotheses. A standardized questionnaire was presented to a sample of 494 German adults aged 18 to 80. The results of both test strategies show that the assumptions of an interaction effect between self-control and opportunities are fundamentally supported.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. According to the authors, what can explain deviant behavior?
2. What methods did the authors use to test their research question?
3. What were the overall results of the study?
    

Article 2: Bottrell, D., Armstrong, D., & France, A. (2010). Young people’s relations to crime: Pathways across ecologies. Youth Justice, 10(1), 56–72. Retrieved from

This article analyses young people’s accounts of their relations to crime, elucidating microecological factors emphasized in developmental criminological explanations of offending and how macroecological forces emphasized in critical criminology enter their lives. Interrelated victimization, witnessing crime, cultural and societal access routes and institutional interventions including criminalization constitute their relations to crime and are formative of life pathways that include offending. Young people’s accounts suggest the need to consider the effects of distal systems both in the construction of crime as a social problem and their constitutive effects in local ecologies and individual lives.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. How does this study extend our knowledge of adolescent-limited offending?
2. What are the major conclusions?
    

Article 3: Kubiak, S. P., Kasiborski, N., & Schmittel, E. (2010). Assessing long-term outcomes of an intervention designed for pregnant incarcerated women. Research on Social Work Practice, 20(5), 528–535. Retrieved from

Objectives: Approximately 25% of women are pregnant or postpartum when they enter prison. This study assesses a system-level intervention that prevented the separation of mothers and infants at birth, allowing them to reside together in an alternative community setting. Method: Longitudinal analysis of several state-level administrative databases compares the intervention (n = 48) group to the ‘‘treatment as usual’’ group (n = 36), over a 10-year period. Results: Preliminary analyses reveal few between-group differences and illuminate the presence of informal caregivers that were outside the scope of our data. Conclusions: Although 70% of the children remain legally attached to their mothers, further study is required to account for data limitations and to determine whether time to negative events differed between groups.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What was the research question for this study?
2. What were the methods used in this study?
3. What did the authors conclude from their findings?

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Article 1: Vieraitis, L., Piquero, N., Piquero, A., Tibbetts, S., & Blankenship, M. (2012). Do women and men differ in their neutralizations of corporate crime? Criminal Justice Review, 37 (4), 478–493. Retrieved from

Neutralization theory has commonly been used to understand the motivations of street offending, and recent studies have examined the use of neutralization techniques by corporate and white-collar offenders to account for their crimes. However, few researchers have explored whether this process is gendered. Using data from master of business administration (MBA) students, this study examines how gender influences intentions to inhibit or promote the sale of Panalba, a hypothetical pharmaceutical drug known to harm people, as well as how gender moderates the relationship between techniques of neutralization and corporate offending decisions. Results show that while there are bivariate gender differences in corporate offending decisions and in some of the techniques of neutralization, there are few gender differences in the effect of techniques of neutralization on corporate offending decisions. Directions for future research are highlighted.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is neutralization theory?
2. Where did the data come from for this research study?
3. What did the authors conclude about gender and corporate crime?
    

Article 2: Vakhitoa, Z., Reynald, D., & Townsley, M. (2015). Toward the adaptation of routine activity and lifestyle exposure theories to account for cyber abuse victimization. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32(2), 169–188. Retrieved from

With the advent of the Internet and the emergence of cybercrimes (e.g., cyber stalking, cyber harassment), criminologists have begun to explore the empirical utility of lifestyle exposure and routine activity theories (RATs) to account for personal victimization as a consequence of cyber abuse. Available cyber abuse studies have produced inconsistent empirical support for both models, which has reignited the debate about whether terrestrial theories, such as RAT, will ever be able to adequately explain cybercrimes due to the spatial and temporal disconnect between the theories and the cyber environment. This article reviews existing cyber abuse scholarship, explores potential reasons for the weak empirical support for routine activity and lifestyle exposure theories in cyberspace, and proposes several directions for future research. We suggest that to further our understanding of cyber abuse processes, scholars need to carefully define and operationalize the key theoretical concepts in the light of latest developments in RAT (i.e., addition of new controllers—handlers and place managers, and super controllers), and conduct in-depth qualitative studies, as well as quantitative studies, that employ robust methodological designs and multilevel statistical analyses.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. According to the authors, what are two of the latest developments of the routine activity model?
2. The authors state that there is a “disconnect between the theories and the environment of cyberspace.” Explain.
3. How should the operationalization of suitable target and capable guardianship each be modified when studying cybercrime?

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Article 1: Lankford, A. (2016). Race and mass murder in the United States: A social and behavioral analysis. Current Sociology, 64(3), 470–490. Retrieved from

In the popular discourse, it is commonly assumed that mass murderers and mass shooters are different from most criminals in the United States, because they are almost always white. The present study uses data on 308 mass murderers who attacked from 2006 to 2014 to evaluate this assumption, test for racial differences between mass murderers and all other murderers, and identify characteristics of mass murderers’ behavior by race and ethnic group. Findings suggest that, overall, the racial composition of mass murderers is similar to that of other murderers, and thus may be largely explained by similar social forces, such as structural disadvantages and social inequalities. However, there are significant differences across racial and ethnic groups in attack subtype, victims killed, and attack resolution. In particular, the structural advantages and aggrieved entitlement experienced by whites may help explain their involvement in public mass shootings. Further research in both the United States and other countries may shed additional light on the behavior of mass murderers and the broader social forces that shape them.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. Identify at least two contributions that this study hopes to make to the field.
2. What are the limitations of the study?
3. What are the findings as they relate to structural advantage and to structural disadvantage?

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Article 1: Chapel, J., & Taylor, D. (1970). Drugs for kicks. Crime and Delinquency, 16(1), 1–35. Retrieved from

This paper is a review of drugs that are being abused by children and adolescents. The format includes subheadings of "General Information," "Effects," "Techniques of Administration," "Habit Description," "Clinical Findings," "Association with Crime, Sex, Antisocial Behavior," "Personality Dynamics," "Treatment," and, where applicable, "Preventive Measures." The paper is summarized in a table and includes a comprehensive bibliography of some ninety references.

Inhaling noxious vapors of toluene, gasoline, etc., results in an acute brain syndrome that resembles alcohol intoxication but has more serious side effects, including hallucinations and delusions. The deterioration of judgment accompanying this intoxication sometimes results in serious accidents and even fatal consequences. The possibility of chronic physical and psychological morbidity is accepted.

More serious is the problem of the adolescent narcotic addict who is under compulsion to obtain drugs (usually by crime) to feed his physical and psychic craving.

Of the hallucinogenic drugs, LSD and marijuana are by far the most commonly abused. Though neither has been shown to be addictive, both produce physiologic and psychic manifestations that can be rather severe, and both can precipitate psychotic breaks. LSD has been shown to cause "chromosomal breaks" in the cells of the users and their offspring. Other hallucinogenic drugs such as morning-glory seeds, nutmeg, etc., give essentially the same reactions but are less frequently used.

The paper conjectures that usage of LSD, STP, and other psychedelic drugs (but not marijuana) will eventually drop off but that other modes of getting "kicks" or "acting out" will quickly spring up to take their place.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What types of drugs are being abused by adolescents?
2. What are some of the effects of the drugs adolescents are using?
3. What are some of the clinical findings the research has found?
    

Article 2: Felson, R. B., & Staff, J. (2015). Committing economic crime for drug money. Crime & Delinquency, 1–16. Retrieved from

We examine the effects of the type and frequency of drug use on whether offenders engage in economic crime to obtain money for drugs. Analyses are based on a nationally representative sample of prison inmates (5,371 property offenders and 4,588 drug offenders). Daily users of heroin, crack cocaine, or powdered cocaine are most likely to report that they committed their offense for drug money. However, offenders who used these drugs less frequently and daily users of marijuana and methamphetamine reported this motivation as well. The motivation was more common among offenders who lacked access to legitimate income. The findings suggest that economic crimes are used to support recreational drug use as well as heavy use of heroin and cocaine.

Questions that apply to this article:

1. What is the purpose of this study?
2. What does this study contribute to the field?