Desmond, Papachristos, and Kirk (2016) examine the relationship between police violence and the amount of citizen crime reporting within Black communities. To do so, the researchers “obtained every 911 call placed in Milwaukee between March 1, 2004 and December 31, 2010 (N = 1,104,369).” (p.861). Which of the following elements of research design does this statement describe?
a. subject fatigue
b. spurious relationship
c. units of analysis
d. units of observation
e. all of these
